WHAT IS BIOGEOGRAPHY?

WHAT IS BIOGEOGRAPHY?

Hybrid discipline between biology and geography

Examines spatial distribution of organisms
Sample Questions
Why did tuataras survive in New Zealand?
Why are salamanders so abundant in North America?
How did Plenthodontidae get to South America?
Why are there so many species in the tropics?
Many Scales
Individual animals
Patterns of genetic diversity
Species Ranges
Global diversity patterns
Major Subdisciplines
Zoogeography--Mainly studied by biologists
Phytogeography--Mainly studied by geographers

Lets Start Small Scale--Individual Animals

Why do individuals live where they do?

Interactions with conspecifics
Territoriality
Defense of Mates
Defense of Resources
Both
Saved for Exclusive Use
When Are Resources Worth Defending
Home Range
Nonexclusive
Area of Normal Use
Methods of Analysis
Dispersal
Individual Permanently Changes Home Ranges
High Costs--So Why Do It?
Inbreeding Avoidance
Resident Fitness

Lets Start Small Scale--Individual Animals

Why do individuals live where they do?

Individual Behaviors
Migration
Need Not Be 2 Directional
Relatively Rapid
Fig 12-10
Predictable

Not Easily Interrupted

Usually Seasonal Change in Home Range
Examples
Sea Turtles
Trips To and From Hibernacula
Trips To and From Breeding Sites
All of These Behaviors Can Lead to Population Mixing

Now For Moderate Scale--Community Level

Latitudinal Species Gradient:

Bill Mitchell

Northern Hemisphere Bias

Reverse Trend in # Individuals
Hypotheses
Intermediate Disturbance
Available Energy
Energy by Moisture

16-1

Now For Moderate Scale--Community Level

Are Communities The Result of Internal or External Factors

Community Composition Driven By Species/Species Interactions
Positive Interaction
F. C. Clements
Holistic Model
Species Have Evolved Together
True for Parasites and Hosts, Specialized Predators and Prey
Negative Interactions
Competition
Niche Theory
Communities are Random Associations of Species
H. A. Gleason
Individualistic Model
Little Association Between Species
Species Individual Characteristics Control Presence?Absence

Now For Moderate Scale--Community Level

Both Are True

Communities are Mostly Random Associations
Individuals Species Respond Independently
Apparent Competition is not Necessarily Competition.
True for Parasites and Hosts, Specialized Predators and Prey
Negative Interactions
Competition
Niche Theory
Communities are Random Associations of Species
Regional Species Pool
Little Association Between Species
Species Individual Characteristics Control Presence?Absence
Which is True?

Figures from Ricklefs Ecology

MOST ECOLOGISTS AGREE THAT COMMUNITIES

ARE PRIMARILY ASSEMBLED INDIVIDUALLY.
SEVERAL FEATURES OF THE HOLISTIC MODEL
DO ROUTINELY OCCUR.

EXAMPLES OF HOLISTIC PATTERNS

Intraspecific Competition
Can have a major impact on Community Structure
Coevolution of Pollinators and Plants
Some of these relationships are species specific
Parasites and Hosts
These are typically host- or group-specific
Other Close Associations
Specialist Predators and Prey: Ex Lynx/Hare
Plant Specialists
Organism-like structuring--Ecological Roles
Hard Ecological Edges (Forest/Lake)

Most of this community ecology is based either on

plants, birds, or insects. Do these interactions occur
between local herp populations?

Differential Predation Can Shift Competitive Relationships

Example: Has the Community Changed
Since Newts Were Extirpated From Sandcut?
Toad=Tasty

No Newts is
good newts

We love
newts
Say no to
newts

Without newts, tree frog tadpoles are outcompeted by toads

(In Cattle Tanks)

WHY DO WE RECORD WHETHER PONDS HAVE FISH IN

THEM OR NOT?

Photo from www.cabelas.com

In fact, loss of the newts at Daves Pond occurred simultaneously with

introduction of catfish. If so, what changes would you predict?

Great, Now
Im Tasty

What other than habitat is different between these ponds?

Pond

Pond

Woods

Parking Lot

Why is this Difference Important?

Is there a relationship between the size of a habitat and

Note this is a log the number of species present?
Scalewhat does
This relationship
Really look like?

Figures from Ricklefs Ecology

WHY DOES THIS SPECIES

AREA RELATIONSHIP EXIST

2 Conflicting Ideas
Balance Between Extinction and Colonization
Larger Islands have slower rate of extinction

These Issues are the Classic Problems of Island Biogeography

BACK TO THE BIG QUESTION:

WHAT FACTORS CONTROL THE

SPECIES PRESENT AT ANY ONE SITE?

WHAT FACTORS CONTROL THE

SPECIES PRESENT AT ANY ONE SITE?

Is the habitat appropriate?

Specialists need particular habitat
Even habitat generalists have needs
Includes physical conditions (i.e. rainfall, temperature extremes)
What limits the northern end of the range of Alligator mississippiensis
Why are tail-water pits allowing aquatic species to invade dry areas
If the habitat is appropriate is it occupied
Niche theory
Principle of competitive exclusion
Fox assembly rules
Can also be restricted by presence of predators/parasites

WHAT FACTORS CONTROL THE

SPECIES PRESENT AT ANY ONE SITE?

Can enough individuals get there?

Within dispersal range
How do species invade new habitat patches
Any barriers?
Vicariant Biogeography
Oceans
Roadways
Lead to view of habitat islands
Will someone take me?
Intentional and Unintentional Introductions
Interactions between the history of the species and the Earth
Historical Biogeography
Paleobiogeography
Anthrobiogeography

WORLD HISTORY 101

Pay Attention To PatternDates are Important, but Too Detailed

When vertebrates evolved in the late Paleozoic.
All major landmasses were united in Pangea
Fig 5-3a

WORLD HISTORY 101

Midway through the age of Dinosaurs (i.e. early Jurassic) Pangea starts
to spit into 2 continents (Laurasia and Gondwanaland)

Fig 5-3b

WORLD HISTORY 101

Late in the age of Dinosaurs (i.e. late K) Laurasia and Gondwanaland

are separate, and Gondwanaland itself starts to split

Fig 5-3d

WORLD HISTORY 101

Mid Miocene Most Continents close to current positionsNote

Shallow seas separating Asia and India, N+S America, Middle East,
Australia and Antarctica. Also note the relationship of NA and Europe
via Greenland.

Fig 5-4a

WORLD HISTORY 101

Modern WorldNote you only sea NA and SA joined VERY recently.

Fig 5-4c

WORLD HISTORY 101

Why do we see Boidae mostly in Africa, Australia, and South America?

Why are the faunas of Holoarctic so different from those of the
Neotropics

Why are the Faunas of Madagascar and Australia so different?

Fig 5-6

Interpreting Distributions

Modern distributions are the result of both dispersal and vicariant

events.

Remember that taxa differ wildly in their abilities to move across

different types of barriers.

Fig 5-4a
Keep in mind weather patterns and vegetation play a critical role.

Dispersal can happen via unusual events.

Rain of frog eggs in New England following hurricanes in summer
2003.
Rafting of green Iguanas to Angualla Island in 1995
Movement of brown snakes to Guam in Aircraft
Snakes in Bananassee text