CHE 321

UNIT OPERATION 1 (3 UNITS)

Module 8: Particulate Separation Operations 2

8.1: Drying, Conveying

8.2: Sedimentation, Clarification.

RECOMMENDED READING/TEXT
Chemical Engineering Volume 2 by
Coulson & Richardson Engineering
Transport Processes & Separation
process
Principles by Geankopolis C.J.

Principles of Unit Operations by

Foust A.S.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

Unit Operation: is concerned with those separations that depend on

differences in physical properties rather than chemical behaviour.
Such process depend either upon a difference in composition of
phases at equilibrium or upon a difference in the rate of mass transfer
of constituents of a mixture e.g drying, filtration, evaporation etc.
Separation Processes: when faced with problem of separating
components out of homogenous mixture, differences in the properties
of the constituents of the mixture is required to effect the separation.
The various chemical and physical properties offer the greatest
difference among components because the difference in the property
will generally permit an easier, more economical separation.

8.1.1. DRYING

Drying is a mass transfer process which involves the removal of

water, or another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semisolid or liquid.
In drying, water is removed as a vapor by air while in
evaporation water is removed as vapor at its boiling points.
The drying of materials is often the final operation in a
manufacturing

process,

packaging or dispatch.

carried

out

immediately

prior

to

Purpose of Drying
To reduce the cost of transportation.
To make a material more suitable for handling, for example, soap
powders, dyestuffs and fertilisers.
As a preservation technique. Dry foods can be stored for
extended period of time.
To remove moisture which may otherwise lead to corrosion e.g drying
of gaseous fuels or benzene prior to chlorination.

General Methods of Drying

Drying methods and processes can be classified in several different ways.

Batch process- where the materials is inserted into the drying equipment and drying
proceeds for a given period of time
Continuous process - where the material is continuously added to the dryer and dried
material is continuously removed.

Drying processes can also be categorized according to the physical conditions used
to add heat and remove water vapor;
Convective or direct drying- heat is added by direct contact with heated air at
atmospheric pressure and the water vapor formed is removed by air;

Indirect or contact drying involves drum drying, vacuum drying, the evaporation
of water proceeds more rapidly at low pressures, and the heat is added indirectly by
contact with metal wall or by radiation
Freeze-drying- is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to
drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly
from the solid phase, below the melting point of the solvent.
Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the
material)- may be used to assist air drying or vacuum drying.

Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying)- involves steam drying of

products containing water. This process is feasible because water in the
product is boiled off, and joined with the drying medium, increasing its flow.
Natural air drying- takes place when materials are dried with unheated
forced air, taking advantage of its natural drying potential. It is a slow and
weather dependent process. Grains are increasingly dried with this
technique, and the total time may last from one week to various months.

Rate of Drying
In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also moisture
from the interior of the material. If the change in moisture content for a material is
determined as a function of time, a smooth curve is obtained from which the rate of
drying at any given moisture content may be evaluated. The form of the drying rate
curve varies with the structure and type of material, and two typical curves are
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Rate of drying of a granular material

In curve 1, there are two well-defined zones: AB, where the rate of
drying is constant and BC, where there is a steady fall in the rate of
drying as the moisture content is reduced. The moisture content at the
end of the constant rate period is represented by point B, and this is
known as the critical moisture content. Curve 2 shows three stages, DE,
EF and FC. The stage DE represents a constant rate period, and EF and
FC are falling rate periods. In this case, the Section EF is a straight line,
however, and only the portion FC is curved. Section EF is known as the
first falling rate period and the final stage, shown as FC, as the second
falling rate period. The drying of soap gives rise to a curve of type 1, and
type 2 shows the drying of sand.

Constant Rate Periods

It is the initial stage of drying where water is evaporated from the surface
of the product and the temperature of the product remains constant.
In order to calculate the rate of drying under these conditions, the
relationships obtained for diffusion of a vapour from a liquid surface into a
gas may be used.
The simplest equation of this type is:
(1)
where kG is the mass transfer coefficient.
A is the surface area,
Ps is the vapour pressure of the water, and
Pw is the partial pressure of water vapour in the air stream.
Since the rate of transfer depends on the velocity u of the air stream,
raised to a power of about 0.8, then the mass rate of evaporation is:

. (2)
Eq. 2 simply states that the rate of transfer is equal to the transfer
coefficient multiplied by the driving force. It may be noted, however, that
(Ps Pw) is not only a driving force, but it is also related to the capacity of
the air stream to absorb moisture
The rate of drying in the constant rate period is given by:
=

. (3)

where: w is the rate of loss of water,

h is the heat transfer coefficient from air to the wet surface,
T is the temperature difference between the air and the surface,
is the latent heat of vaporisation per unit mass,
kG is the mass transfer coefficient for diffusion from the wet surface
through the gas film,

A is the area of interface for heat and mass

transfer, and
(Ps Pw) is the difference between the vapour
pressure of water at the surface and the partial
pressure in the air.
First falling-rate period
The points B and E in Figure 1 represent conditions
where the surface is no longer capable of supplying
sufficient free moisture to saturate the air in
contact with it.
Second falling-rate period
At the conclusion of the first falling rate period it
may be assumed that the surface is dry and that
the plane of separation has moved into the solid. In
this case, evaporation takes place from within the

 Time for drying

If a material is dried by passing hot air over a
surface which is initially wet, the rate of drying
curve in its simplest form is represented by BCE,
shown in Figure 2

Figure 2: The use of a rate of drying curve in estimating the time for drying

where: w is the total moisture,

we is the equilibrium moisture content (point E),
w we is the free moisture content, and
wc is the critical moisture content (point C).
Constant-rate period
During the period of drying from the initial moisture
content w1 to the critical moisture content wc, the
rate of drying is constant, and the time of drying tc
is given by:
.. (4)

Rc is the rate of drying per unit area in the

constant rate period,
A is the area of exposed surface.

Falling-rate period
During this period the rate of drying is,
approximately, directly proportional to the free
moisture content (w we), or:
.. (5)

(6)

 Total time of drying

The total time t of drying from w1 to w is given by t
= (tc + tf ).
The rate of drying Rc over the constant rate period
is equal to the initial rate of drying in the falling
rate period, so that
Rc = mfc.
.. (7)
Thus:

and the total drying time,

Example 1
A wet solid is dried from 25 to 10 per cent moisture
under constant drying conditions in 15 ks (4.17 h).
If the critical and the equilibrium moisture contents
are 15 and 5 per cent respectively. How long will it
take to dry the solid from 30 to 8 per cent moisture
under the same conditions?
Solution
For the first drying operation:
W1 = 0.25 kg/kg, w = 0.10 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg
and we = 0.05 kg/kg
Thus: = (w1 we) = (0.25 0.05) = 0.20 kg/kg
= (wc we) = (0.15 0.05) = 0.10
kg/kg
f = (w we) = (0.10 0.05) = 0.05 kg/kg

From equation 8, the total drying time is:

mA = 0.0667(1.0 + 0.693) = 0.113 kg/s

For the second drying operation:
W1 = 0.30 kg/kg, w = 0.08 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg and
we = 0.05 kg/kg
Thus, f1 = (w1 we) = (0.30 0.05) = 0.25 kg/kg
fc = (wc we) = (0.15 0.05) = 0.10 kg/kg
f = (w we) = (0.08 0.05) = 0.03 kg/kg
The total drying time is then:
t = (1/0.113)[(0.25 0.10)/0.10 + ln(0.10/0.03)]
= 8.856(1.5 + 1.204)
t = 23.9 ks (6.65 h)

 Classification and Selection Of Dryers

Classification and selection of dryers is based on
the following factors:
(a) Temperature and pressure in the dryer,
(b) The method of heating,
(c) The means by which moist material is
transported through the dryer,
(d) Any mechanical aids aimed at improving drying,
(e) The method by which the air is circulated,
(f) The way in which the moist material is
supported,
(g) The heating medium, and
(h) The nature of the wet feed and the way it is
introduced into the dryer.

 Types of Dryer
1. Tray or shelf dryers
Tray or shelf dryers are commonly used for granular
materials and for individual articles. The material is
placed on a series of trays which may be heated
from below by steam coils and drying is carried out
by the circulation of air over the material. As air is
passed over the wet material, both its temperature
and its humidity change.
2.Tunnel Dryers
In tunnel dryers, a series of trays or trolleys is
moved slowly through a long tunnel, which may or
may not be heated, and drying takes place in a
current of warm air. Tunnel dryers are used for
drying paraffin wax, gelatine, soap, pottery ware,

Figure 3: Arrangements for tunnel dryers

3. Rotary dryers
Rotary dryer, which consists of a relatively long
cylindrical shell mounted on rollers and driven at a
low speed, up to 0.4 Hz is suitable for the
continuous drying of materials on a large scale, 0.3
kg/s (1 tonne/h) or greater. It involves either direct
heating or indirect heating

Figure 4: Rotary dryer, 0.75 m diameter 4.5 m long for drying dessicated coconut

4. Drum dryers
If a solution or slurry is run on to a slowly rotating
steam-heated drum, evaporation takes place and
solids may be obtained in a dry form. This is the
basic principle used in all drum dryers, some forms
of which are illustrated in Figure 5. The agitator
prevents settling of particles, and the spreader is
sometimes used to produce a uniform coating on
the drum. The knife is employed for removing the
dried material

Figure 5: Methods of feeding drum dryers. (a) Single drum, dip-feed. (b) Single drum,
pan-feed.(c) Single drum, splash-feed. (d) Double drum, dip-feed. (e) Double drum, top-feed

5. Spray dryers
Water may be evaporated from a solution or a
suspension of solid particles by spraying the
mixture into a vessel through which a current of hot
gases is passed. In this way, a large interfacial area
is produced and consequently a high rate of
evaporation is obtained.

8.1.2. MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Material handling includes a number of operations
that can be executed either by hand (manual) or by
mechanical means or devices to convey material
and to reduce the human drudgery.
Selection of material Handling machines and
Conveyors
The selection of proper conveying system is
important for ease in operation and getting desired
capacity for a particular product. Principles based
on which the material handling equipment is
selected are:
characteristics of the products being conveyed
Working and climatic conditions.
The capacity of conveying
In a conveying system possibility of use of gravity

 Types of Material Handling Equipment

The most common types of mechanical devices for
grain handling are;
1. Belt conveyors
A belt conveyor is an endless belt operating
between two pulleys with its load supported on
idlers. The belt may be flat for transporting bagged
material or V-shaped. The belt conveyor consists of
a belt, drive mechanism and end pulleys, idlers and
loading and discharge devices (Fig. 1).

Fig.1 Diagram of a belt conveyor

2. Bucket Elevator
A bucket elevator consists of buckets attached to a
chain or belt that revolves around two pulleys one
at top and the other at bottom. The vertical lift of
the elevator may range between few metres to
more than 50 m. Capacities of bucket elevators
may vary from 2 to 1000 t/hr. Bucket elevators are
broadly classified into two general types- spaced
bucket elevators and continuous bucket elevators.
Bucket elevators have high capacities and it is a
fairly cheap means of vertical conveyance.
It requires limited horizontal space and the
operation of conveying is enclosed in housing, thus
it is dust free and fairly quite. The bucket elevator
has limited wear problem since the product is
enclosed in buckets.

Fig 2. Bucket Elevator

3. Screw Conveyor
The screw conveyor consists of a tubular or Ushaped trough in which a shaft with spiral screw
revolves. The screw shaft is supported hanger
bearings at ends. The rotation of screw pushes the
grain along the trough. The screw conveyor is used
in grain handling facilities, animal feed industries
and other installations for conveying of products
generally for short distances. Screw conveyor
requires relatively high power and is more
susceptible to wear than other types of conveyors.

Figure 3. Screw Conveyor

 4. Chain Conveyor
A chain is a reliable machine component, which
transmits power by means of tensile forces, and is
used primarily for power transmission and
conveyance systems. The function and uses of
chain are similar to a belt. Chains are divided into
five types based on material of composition or
method of construction.
Cast iron chain
Cast steel chain
Forged chain
Steel chain
Plastic chain

5. Pneumatic Conveyor
The pneumatic conveyor moves granular materials
in a closed duct by a high velocity air stream.
Pneumatic conveying is a continuous and flexible
transportation method. The material is carried in
pipelines either by suction or blowing pressure of
air stream. The granular materials because of high
air pressure are conveyed in dispersed condition.
For dispersion of bulk material, air velocities in the
range of 15-30 m/s is necessary.

Figure 4: Separation of product particles from air by means of a fabric filter

Limitations of Pneumatic Conveying

1. Erosion of solid surfaces and equipment surfaces
by solid particles with conveying air stream.
2. In case of bends or misaligned sections, the
erosion problem becomes severe.
3. Chances of repeated impacts between the
particles and the solid surfaces are high. Due to
such impacts, product degradation results.

Module 8.2: Sedimentation, Clarification.

8.2.1. SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the tendency of particles in suspension to settle out of the
fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is
due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them
which could be gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism.
In simple terms, sedimentation is the separation of a dilute slurry by gravity
settling into clear fluid and a slurry of higher solids content. Settling is the
falling of suspended particles through the liquid while sedimentation is the
termination of the settling process.

Filteration, centrifugation and sedimentation are the types of solid-fluid separation

methods
The objective of settling process is to remove particles from a stream in order to
eliminate contaminants from the fluid or to recover the particles e.g. elimination of
dust, fumes or flue gas from the air or the removal of solids form liquid waste
Also in some cases particles are deliberately suspended in fluids to obtain
separations of the particles into fractions differing in size or density. The fluid is the
n recovered, sometimes for reuse, from the fractionated particles.

Settling velocities are too low and for practical operation the particles must be agglomerated
(i.e forming a round mass) or flocculated (i.e aggregating into clumps or mass that sinks or
can be removed by filtering) into large particles that possess higher settling velocity.
The settling process can also be carried out rapidly with the aid of coagulant such as alum,
FeCl2. This process is called Clarification through the use of Clarifier.
An example of a sedimentation equipment are Thickners. A thickner enhances the
concentration of the sediment separating the mixture into underflow and overflow through
mechanical means.

Applications of Settling and Sedimentation

Removal of solids from liquid sewage wastes
Settling of crystals from the mother liquor
Separation of liquid-liquid mixture from a solvent-extraction stage in a
settler
Settling of solid food particles from a liquid food
Water treatment
The particles can be solid particles or liquid drops. The fluid could be liquid
or gas and it may be at rest or in motion.

SEDIMENTATION OF FINE PARTICLES

Experimental study
The sedimentation of metallurgical slimes has been studied by COE
and CLEVENGER,who concluded that a concentrated
suspension may settle in one of two different ways

Figure 1. Sedimentation of concentrated suspensions (a) Type 1

settling (b) Type 2 settling

Types of Settling
Depending on the particles concentration and the interaction
between particles, 4 types of settling can occur,
Type I: Free/Discrete particle settling :
Type II: Flocculent settling
Type III: Hindered settling (Zone Settling)
Type IV: Compression settling

Type I Settling- Free/Discrete particle settling :

This is the removal of discrete particles in such low concentration
that each particle settles freely without interference from adjacent
particles (that is, unhindered settling). The particles settle as
individual particles and do not flocculate or stick to other during
settling. A typical occurrence is the removal of sand particles.
When a particle settles in a fluid it accelerates until the drag force
due to its motion is equal to the submerged weight of the particle.
At this point, the particle will have reached its terminal velocity.

 When the concentration of particles is very small, each particle settles

discretely, as if it is alone, unhindered by the presence of other
particles. Starting from rest, the velocity of a single particle settling
under gravity in water will increase where the density of the particle is
greater than the density of the water. Acceleration continues until the
resistance to flow through the water, or drag, equals the effective
weight of the particle. Thereafter the settling velocity remains constant.
This velocity is called the terminal settling velocity, Vt
For a rigid particle moving in a fluid, there are 3 forces acting on the
body: gravity (Fg) acting downward, buoyant force (Fb) acting upward,
and resistance or drag force (Fd) acting in opposite direction to the
particle motion.

 The buoyant force Fb in Newton on the particle is

Fb =

= Vp

. (1)

Where Vp is the volume of the particle in

g is the gravitational acceleration
The gravitational or external force Fg in Newton on the particle is
Fg = mg .. (2)
The drag force FD on a body in Newton may be derived from the
flow of fluids, the drag force or frictional resistance is
proportional to the velocity head v2/2 of the fluid displaced by
the moving body.

FD = C D

. (3)

Where CD is the drag coefficient/ proportionality constant

The resultant force on the body equals the force due to acceleration
m

= FG FB FD .. (4)

Substituting all the resultant forces from eqn. 1, 2 and 3 into eqn 4, it
becomes:
m

= mg -

- CD

(5)
The terminal velocity is the period of constant velocity,
hence

=0

then, Vt =

..(6)

for spherical particles

A=

Substituting this into eqn. 6

we obtain Vt for spherical particles, Vt =

(7)

Drag coefficient for rigid sphere has a function of the

Reynolds number , the laminar- flow region for N Re
CD

.(8)
Substituting eqn. 8 in eqn 7

Vt =
.(9)
NRe =
In turbulent flow region where NRe is about 1000 to
2.0 X 105
CD = 0.44

Figure 3: Drag Coefficient for a rigid sphere

Example 1
Oil droplets having a diameter of 20 m (0.020 mm) are to be
settled from air at temperature of 37.8oC (311K) and 101.3kPa
pressure. The density of the oil is 900 kg/m3. Calculate the
terminal settling velocity of the droplets.
Density of air = 1.137 kg/m3 Viscosity of air = 1.90 x 10-5 Pa.s
Solution
Given: Diameter of particle Dp
Particle density

1.90 x 10-5

= 900 kg/m3

Temperature of air = 37.8oC

The droplet will be assumed to be a rigid sphere

NRe
=

= 1.197 Vt

For the first trial, assume that Vt = 0.305m/s.

NRe = 1.197 (0.305) = 0.365

Solving for CD in eqn 7

Vt =
(7)

Vt =
CD =

CD
=
2.22

For the 1st trial, assuming Vt = 0.305m/s, NRe = 0.365 and CD = 2.22
For the 2nd trial, assuming Vt = 0.0305m/s, NRe = 0.0365 and CD = 222
For the 3rd trial, assuming Vt = 0.00305m/s, NRe = 0.00365 and CD = 22200
The 3 values calculated for NRe and CD are plotted on a graph similar to figure 3.
The line through this 3 points is a straight line, the intersection of this line and the drag coefficient
correlation line is the solution.
From the graph, intersection at NRe = 0.012
But NRe = 1.197 Vt
0.012 = 1.197 Vt
Vt = 0.0100m/s
Since Re 1, the particle is in the laminar Stokes law region.

Alternatively, the Vt can be calculated using equation 9

Vt =

Vt =

Vt = 0.0103 m/s
Note: eqn. 9 could not be used until it was determined that the particle fall was in the laminar region.

 Type II: Flocculent settling;

This is defined as a condition where particles initially settle
independently but flocculate in the depth of the clarification unit thus
they increase in size and settle at a faster velocity.
Flocculation is a process of aggregation and attrition. Aggregation can
occur by Brownian diffusion, differential settling, and velocity gradients
caused by fluid shear. Attrition is caused mainly by excessive velocity
gradients.
Examples of Flocculent Settling:
Primary settling of wastewater
Settling of chemically coagulated water and wastewater

 Type III: Hindered settling (Zone Settling):

When the particles are crowded, they settle at a lower rate. As
the concentration of particles in a suspension is increased, a point
is reached where particles are so close together that they no
longer settle independently of one another and the velocity fields
of the fluid displaced by adjacent particles, overlap. There is
also a net upward flow of liquid displaced by the settling
particles. This results in a reduced particle-settling velocity and
the effect is known as hindered settling.

Characteristics of Hindered settling;

It is the settling of an intermediate concentration of particles
The particles are close to each other
Inter-particle forces hinder settling of neighboring particles
Particles remain in fixed position relative to each other
Mass of particles settle as a zone
The higher effective viscosity of the mixture is equal to the
actual viscosity of the liquid itself , divided by an empirical
correction factor, , which depends upon , the volume fraction of
the slurry mixture occupied by the liquid.

.... (10)
.. (11)
Where
is dimensionless
The density of the fluid phase effectively becomes the bulk
density of the slurry
.
(12)
Where
is density of slurry in solid(kg) + liquid (m 3). The
density difference is now
=
.
(13)
Substitute
for
in eqn. 9, for
from eqn 13 and
multiplying the result by
for the relative-velocity effect,

Eq. 9 becomes for laminar settling.

Vt =

.(14)

The Reynolds number is based on the velocity to the fluid

and is,
NRe =

(15)

When the Reynolds number is less than 1, the settling is in laminar range.

Example 2
Calculate the settling velocity of glass spheres having a diameter
of 1.554 x 10-4 m in water at 293.2 K (20oC). The slurry contain
60 wt % solids. The density of the glass spheres is = 2467 kg/m3.
Density of water = 998 kg/m3. Viscosity of water = 1.005 x 10-3
Pa.s
Solution
Basis: 100 wt%
Slurry = 60 wt % solids
Water = (100 60) wt % = 40 wt %

=
0.622

The bulk density

= 0.622 (998) + (1- 0.622) (2467)

1553 kg/m3

Settling Velocity Vt =
But

Vt

Vt = 1.525 x 10-3 m/s

NRe =

where

Then NRe =

NRe
=
NRe = 0.121
Since NRe

1, the settling is in a laminar range

Type IV: Compression settling:

This occurs when the particle concentration is so high that
particles at one level are mechanically influenced by particles on
lower levels. The settling velocity then drastically reduces to low
solids concentration. A typical occurrence of this type of settling
is the removal of sand particles. In this settling, a particle will
accelerate until the drag force, FD, equals the impelling (due to
weight) force, FI; then settling occurs at a constant velocity, Vs.

Characteristics of Compression settling:

Settling of particles that are of high concentration
Particles touch each other
Settling occurs by compression of the compacting mass
It occurs in the lower depths of final clarifiers of activated sludge
Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
1. Simple gravity settling tank; A simple gravity is used for
removing a dispersed liquid phase from another phase. The
velocity horizontally to the right must be slow enough to allow
time for the smallest droplets to rise from the bottom to the right

To the interface or from the top down to the interface and

coalesce. Dust-laden air enters at one end of the chamber.
Particles settle towards the floor at their terminal velocities.
2. Spitzkasten Classifier: It consists of a series of conical vessels of
increasing diameter in the direction of flow. The slurry enters the
first vessel, where the largest and fastest-settling particles are
separated. The slurry enters the first vessel, where the largest and
fastest- settling particles are separation. The overflow goes to the
next vessel, where another separation occurs.

3. Sedimentation thickener: Industrially, sedimentation operations

are often carried out continuously in equipment called
thickeners. In the thickener the entering slurry spreads radially
through the cross section of the thickner and the liquid flows
upward and out the overflow.

8.2.2CLARIFICATION
Clarification is the general term used to describe the way suspended solids are
separated from a liquid (water).
Clarification is the process of settling. For a settling process, the velocity of water is
lowered below the suspension velocity and suspended particles settle out of water
due to gravity.
Suspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various methods to provide
water suitable for domestic purposes and most industrial requirements. The
suspended matter can consist of large solids, settable by gravity alone without any
external aids, and nonsettleable material, often colloidal in nature. Removal is
generally accomplished by coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation.

A Solids-contact clarifiers, also known as upflow solids-contact clarifiers or

upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact clarifiers are often found
in packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation must occur
indoors.

Coagulation is the process of destabilization by charge neutralization. Once

neutralized, particles no longer repel each other and can be brought together.
Coagulation is necessary for the removal of the colloidal-sized suspended
matter.

Flocculation is the process of bringing together the destabilized, or

"coagulated," particles to form a larger agglomeration, or floc.

 Sedimentation refers to the physical removal from suspension,

or settling, that occurs once the particles have been coagulated
and flocculated. Sedimentation or subsidence alone, without
prior coagulation, results in the removal of only relatively coarse
suspended solids.

Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are

removed as scum.

In most municipal wastewater treatment plants, the treatment unit

which immediately follows the grit channel is the sedimentation
and flotation unit, which is also known as the primary.

Figure 1: A Typical Clarifier

 A typical plant may have clarifiers located at two different

points. The one which immediately follows the bar screen, grit
channel is called the Primary Clarifier, because it is the first
clarifier in the plant. The other, which follows other types of
treatment units, is called the Secondary or final clarifier. The two
types of clarifiers operate almost exactly the same way.
In primary clarifier only large particles settle at the bottom while
smaller particles remain in the suspension. Hence the need for a
secondary clarifier and other processes to achieve a complete
settlement.

 The main difference between primary and secondary clarifiers is

in the density of the sludge handled. Primary sludges are usually
denser than secondary sludges. Effluent from a secondary
clarifier is normally clearer than primary effluent.

Figure 2: Typical clarification process

 To calculate the efficiency of any wastewater treatment process,

you need to collect samples of the influent and the effluent of the
process, preferably composite samples for a 24- hour period.
Next, measure the particular water quality indicators. For
example, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), suspended
solids you are interested in and calculate the treatment efficiency.
Calculations of treatment efficiency are for process control
purposes. Your main concern must be the quality of the plant
effluent, regardless of percent of wastes removed.

Example:

The influent BOD to a primary clarifier is 200 mg/l, and the effluent BOD is
140 mg/l. What is the efficiency of the primary clarifier in removing BOD?
Solution
Given: Influent BOD, 200mg/l
Effluent BOD, 140 mg/l
Calculate the BOD removal efficiency
Efficiency % = (In - Out) x 100%
In
= (200mg/l - 140 mg/l) x 100%
200 mg/l
= 60 mg/l x 100%
200 mg/l
= (0.30)(100%)
= 30% BOD removal

Typical Clarifier Efficiencies

The following is a list of some typical percentages for primary
clarifier efficiencies:
Water Quality Indicator
Expected Removal Efficiency
Settleable Solids
95% to 99%
Suspended Solids
40% to 60%
Total Solids
10% to 15%
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
20% to 50%
Bacteria
25% to 75%
pH generally will not be affected significantly by a clarifier.
You can expect wastewater to have a pH of about 6.5 to 8.0
depending on the region, water supply and wastes
discharged into the collection system.

Clarifier efficiencies are affected by many factors, including:

1. Types of solids in the wastewater, especially if there is a
significant amount of industrial waste.
2. Age (time in collection system) of wastewater when it reaches the
plant. Older wastewater becomes stale; solids do not settle
properly because gas bubbles cling on the particles and tend to
hold them in suspension.
3. Rate of wastewater flow as compared to design flow. This is
called the hydraulic loading.
4. Mechanical conditions and cleanliness of clarifier.

5. Proper sludge withdrawal. If sludge is allowed to remain n the

tank it tends to gasify and the entire sludge blanket (depth) may
rise to the water surface in the clarifier.
6. Suspended solids, which are returned to the primary clarifier
from other treatment processes, may not settle completely.
Sources of these solids include waste activated sludge,
supernatant and sludge dewatering facilities (concentrate from
centrifuges and filtrate from filters).