PlateTectonics:theEarthasaSystem

Upto~40yearsago,geologywasalargecollectionofsomewhat
disconnectedobservationsandlocalknowledge.Theadventof
platetectonicsorganizesmostofgeologyintoacoherent,
physicallybasedframework,andisthereforeofparamount
importanceinsurficialgeologyaswellasingeophysicsandthe
studyofthedeepinterior.
Thepostulatesofplatetectonicsareasfollows:
Thesilicateearthisdividedintoalithosphere,whichiscoldandtherefore
brittleandrigid,andanasthenosphere,whichishotandthereforeductile.
Simplescalingargumentsshowthattheasthenosphereislikelytoconvect.The
lithosphereisthecold,upperboundarylayerofthisconvectingsystem,butthe
extremetemperaturedependenceofrheologymakesthesystemverydifferent
fromsimpleconvectionmodels

Thelithosphereorganizesitselfintoaseriesofinternally(almost)rigid
plates.Theseplatesaremobilewithrespecttotheasthenosphereandwith
respecttoeachother.
Byvariousmechanisms,thestrainneededtoallowconvectiveheattoescape
andcoldmaterialtoreturntotheasthenosphereisconcentratedintonarrow
zonesattheboundariesofplates
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PlateTectonics:theEarthasaSystem
Platetectonicsisakinematictheory
Itspecifiesthattheplatesmoveanddescribeswheredeformation,
seismicity,volcanism,etc.occur
Theissueofdynamics,i.e.,thedrivingforcesforplatemotion,isa
separatequestion
Detailsaside,however,platemotionsarethesurfaceexpressionofthe
Earthsheatengine:theinteriorishot,spaceiscold,thesecondlawof
thermodynamicsstatesthatthisgradientwilldrivespontaneousprocesses
inpursuitofequilibrium

OnlytheEarthhasplatetectonicsatthepresentera.Thisimplies
thatitrequiresacombinationof:
therightheatbudget(mostlyamatterofsize;compareMars)
therightrheology
Thesurfacemustberigidenoughtomakeplates(compareJupiter)
butweakenoughtolocalizestrain(compareVenus)
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PlateTectonics:theEarthasaSystem
Theboundariesbetweenlithosphericplatesareofthreekinds
Divergent,Convergent,Transform

DivergentPlateBoundaries
Wherelithosphericplatesaremovingawayfromoneanotherat
theirboundary,newlithospheremustbecreated.Thisis
accomplishedbymidoceanridgesandcontinentalrifts.

ConvergentPlateBoundaries

Wherelithosphericplatesaremovingtowardsoneanotherat
theirboundary,lithosphericareamustbeconsumed.Thisis
accomplishedbysubductionorthickeninganddelamination.

TransformPlateBoundaries
Wherethemotionoftwoplatesisparallelto
theirboundary,lithosphereisneithercreated
nordeformed,butstrainisconcentratedand
seismicityiscommon.

Inallthreecases,theresponseofthe
lithosphereisdominatedbyfaulting,the
primarymechanismforstrainconcentrationto
narrowboundaries

Hotspots

Tothissimpleschemewemustaddatleastoneotherimportant
elementofmantleconvectionthatisnotdirectlyassociatedwith
therheologyofthelithosphere:
Plumes:some10%ofheatflowacrossthemantleisthoughttobecarried
byrisingplumesratherthansubductionofcoldlithosphere.Thismodeof
convectionisdrivenbybasalheatingratherthansurfacecooling.Plumes
arepresumedtoleadtolonglivedcentersofintraplatevolcanismaswell
aslargeepisodesofvolcanismoftenassociatedwiththeformationofnew
divergentboundaries.

EvidenceforPlateTectonics

Thecontinentsmove?Humbugcanyouprove
it?

Thefitofthecontinents.Thiswas
notedalmostassoonasgoodmaps
wereavailable,namelyafterthe
solutionoftheproblemoflongitude
in1735(mapsbeforethisare
distortedsinceonlylatitudecould
bemeasuredprecisely).
LithologicandPaleontological
correlationsacrosstheAtlantic.In
1915AlfredWegeneradded
observationsofPaleozoic
similaritiesbetweenS.Americaand
Africaasevidencefortheformer
proximityofthecontinents.He
proposedthatalllandmasseswere
formerlyjoinedinthe
supercontinentPangaea.

EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Mappingoftheseafloor:discoveryofmidoceanridgesanddeep
seatrenches,19501960,bysonarbathymetrymeasurements.

EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Mappingoftheseafloor:thisisnowdonegloballyandprecisely
withsatellitegravitydata(calibratedbyshiptracks)

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EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Distributionofvolcanism
Volcanoesarefoundalongnarrowbelts;althoughvolcanismhasmany
causes,itisasignofactivity(verticalmotions,largeheatormasstransfers)

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EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Seismicity:earthquakelocationsare
mostlyrestrictedtonarrowzones
alongmidoceanridges,oceanic
trenches,andcontinentalmargins.
Incrosssection,theWadatiBenioff
zoneclearlysuggeststhe
mechanismofsubduction.
Seismicityisaside
effectofthe
deformationofrocks;
hencetheseismicity
distributionisalmost
primafacieevidence
oftheinternalrigidity
ofplatesandthestrain
concentrationatplate
boundaries.
Red:shallow
Green:intermediatedepth
Blue:Deep

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EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Ageoftheseafloorfromsedimentthicknessandbiostratigraphy.
Theageoftheoldestsedimentinasection(depositedonigneous
basement)clearlygetssystematicallyolderwithdistancefromthe
midoceanridges.Thisdataisgatheredbydeepseadrilling.

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EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Magneticlineationoftheseafloor.Whennewoceancrustformsit
acquiresareadilymeasurableremanentmagnetism.Thepatternof
polarityreversalsknownfromterrestrialmagnetostratigraphycan
bereadassymmetriclineationsaroundthemidoceanridgesthat
demonstrateseafloorspreadingandestablishitsrate.

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EvidenceforPlateTectonics
Geodeticobservation.Toallthetraditionallinesofevidence,we
mustnowadddirectmeasurementofplatevelocitiesbygeodesy
(VLBIandGPS).

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MantleConvection
Convectionisthetransportofheatacrossagravitationalpotentialby
bulkmotiondrivenbybuoyancyforcesduetothermalexpansion
Whetheralayerwillconvectratherthanremainstationaryand
transportheatbyconductiondependsonthefollowingvariables:
Q:themagnitudeofheatflowacrossthebottomofthelayer
A:themagnitudeofheatgeneratedwithinthelayer
d:thethicknessofthelayer
:thethermalexpansivity
g:theaccelerationduetogravity
k:thethermalconductivity
:thethermaldiffusivity
:thekinematicviscosity

Inparticular,alayerwillbeunstabletooverturningifthe
dimensionlessRayleighnumberRaexceedsacriticalvalue~103

gd Q Ad
Ra
k

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MantleConvection
WhatisRafortheEarthsmantle?
Weknowgandd,obviously.andaremeasuredinthelaboratoryon
mantleminerals.ismeasuredbypostglacialreboundorothergeophysical
methodsaswellaslaboratorymeasurements.(Q+Ad)/kfollowsfromheat
flowmeasuredatthesurface.

Layer
Uppermantle
Lowermantle
Wholemantle

thickness(km)
700
2000
2700

Ra
106
3x107
108

Conclusion:eventhoughthemantleisrigidenoughto
transmitshearwaves,itisgrosslyunstabletoconvective
overturn,andexpectedtoconvectvigorously.
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Geodynamicsettingofmajorrocksuites
Mostgeologycanbeunderstoodbysituatingthe
environmentofrockformationinaplatetectonic
context.

Thatis,theactiveregionswhererocksarebeingformedtoday
aresituatedeitheratparticularkindsofplatemarginsorin
continentaloroceanicplateinteriors,butmostoftheactionis
atplateboundaries
Whenwerecognizecharacteristicsequencesofancientrock
typesanddeformationpatterns,wecanconnectthemto
processesthatweseetoday.
Themodern,activeexampleshelpustointerpretancient
formations.
Herearethemajorenvironmentswhererocksaremade,with
modernandancientexamplesofeach
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Geodynamicsettingofmajorrocksuites
Oceaniccrust
Platespreadingcreatesaverycharacteristicsequenceofrocks.
Itisfoundanywhereonedrillsintooceanicbasement.Itwas
recognizedasacharacteristicassemblageonlandandnamed
ophiolitebeforethenatureoftheoceaniccrustwasknown.
Ophiolitesarepiecesofoceancrustobductedontocontinents
bythetectonicsofconvergentmargins.
Thecharacteristic
assemblage,fromthetop
downis:
Deepseamarinesediments
Massivesulfidedeposits
Pillowbasalts
Sheetedbasalticdikes
Layeredgabbro
Serpentinizedperidotites
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Geodynamicsettingofmajorrocksuites
Oceaniccrust
Modernexample:HessDeep,EquatorialPacific

Thissequenceresults
fromboththetectonicand
petrogeneticprocessesat
midoceanridges.More
onmidoceanridgesin
thenextlecture

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Geodynamicsettingofmajorrocksuites
Oceaniccrust

Ancientexample:Omanophiolite

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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Passivecontinentalmargin
Whenacontinentisriftedandanewcontinentalmargin
forms,itsoonbecomesapassivemargininthemiddleofa
plateasthecoastmovesfurtherfromtheridgeaxis(example:
eastcoastofNorthAmerica).
Apassivemarginistheedgeofacontinent,butnotaplateboundary

Acharacteristicandreproduciblegeologicalsequenceresults:
massivebasalticvolcanismandnormalfaulting
associatedwithinitiationofrifting
shallowwatersediments:evaporites,deltadeposits,
carbonateshelf
athickwedgeofterrigenoussediment,notablyturbidites,
asthermalsubsidenceandloadingofthemarginprovide
asinkformaterialerodedfromthecontinent
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Geodynamic
SettingofMajor
RockSuites
Passivecontinental
margin
Modernexample:
USAtlanticCoast
Ancientexamples:
PaleozoicCordilleran
miogeocline
Proterozoicgreenstone
beltsofAfrica,Canada
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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Oceanoceansubduction
Subductionofoneoceanicplateunderanotheroceanicplate
occursfrequently,withouttheinvolvementofcontinental
material.ExamplesaretheAleutianarc,Marianasarc,
Antillesarc.
Volcanicsequencesmostlybasaltic
Accretionaryprismssmallbecausesubductedplatetypicallycarriesonlythin
coatingofpelagicsediment
Overridingplatebehindthearcunderextensionandabackarcbasinmay
develop,withaspreadingcentermuchlikeamidoceanridge

Islandarcsmaybeaccretedontocontinentalmargins,e.g.along
westcoastofNorthAmerica.MuchofcentralAsiaisconstructed
fromaseriesofPaleozoicislandarcsandaccretionaryprisms.

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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Oceanoceansubduction

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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Oceancontinentsubduction
Whereanoceanicplatesubductsreadilyunderacontinental
margin,wegenerateanAndeantypemargin.Highmountains,
stratovolcanoes,andlargeplateauxarecharacteristic.

Thickigneouscrustformsbyintrusionanderuptionofcalcalkalinemagma
(basaltandesitedaciterhyolite).Atdepththerearemajorbatholithsof
intermediatetosilicicintrusiverocks
Forearcbasinaccumulatesvolcaniclasticsediment
Accretionaryprismisscrapedoffdowngoingplateandpiledupinboardofthe
trench:amelangeofoceanicrocksmetamorphosedathighpressureandlow
temperature
Theassociationofahighpressure,lowtemperaturemetamorphicbeltwitha
hightemperaturebeltofbatholithicrocksparalleland~200kmawayiscalleda
pairedmetamorphicbelt.Manycanberecognizedinancientterrains.

Modernexample:Cascades
Ancientexample:California(thepairedmetamorphicbelthereisthe
FranciscanComplexandtheSierraNevada)

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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Oceancontinentsubduction

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GeodynamicSettingofMajorRockSuites
Continentalcollisionzone
Attheclosingofanoceanbasin,twocontinentscollide.Continentalcrustistoo
buoyanttosubduct.Insteadthecrustisdoubledup,shortened,folded,and
overthrustinamountainbuildingeventororogeny.
Manyimportantancientrocksequences(e.g.Appalachians)arerecognized,by
comparisontoactive(Himalaya)orrecent(Alpine)mountainbelts,tobe
derivedfromcollisionalorogenies.
Centralpartofrangeisbuiltfromupliftedandheavilydeformedoceanicand
continentalshelfsedimentsandslicesofophiolitefromthevanishedocean.
Collisionalorogensbeginasoceancontinentsubductionzones;associatedrocksare
incorporatedinthecollision.Volcanismmaycontinueduringthecollision.
Largemountainbeltsshedlotsofsedimentintosurroundingbasins.Duringmountain
building,deepseabasinsreceiveturbiditedepositscalledflyschwhichisfoldedand
deformedastheorogenycontinues.Latersedimentscalledmolassearedepositedin
shallowwaterorsubaerialbasins.
Extensiveregionalmetamorphismexposedatthesurfaceasrocksfromdepthare
broughttothesurfacebythrustfaultinganderosionofcover.

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GeodynamicSetting
ofMajorRockSuites
ContintentalCollision
Modernexample:
Himalayanorogeny

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Geodynamic
SettingofMajor
RockSuites
Contintental
Collision
Ancient
example:

Appalachian
orogeny

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