ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY

-> is defined as the ratio of the energy (kilowatt-hours)

delivered by the transformer in a 24-hour period to the
energy input in the same period of time.
-> to determine the all-day efficiency, it is necessary to
know how the load varies from hour to hour during
the day.
Example:
The transformer of example 18 operates with the
following loads during a 24-hr period: 1 times rated
kva, power factor = 0.8, 1hr; 1 times rated kva,
power factor = 0.8, 2hr; rated kva, power factor = 0.9,
3hr; rated kva, power factor = 1.0, 6hr; rated kva,
power factor = 0.8; no-load, 4hr. Calculate the all-day
efficiency.

Solution:
Energy output, kw-hr
Energy losses, kw-hr
W1 = 1.5 x 5 x 0.8 x
= 6.0 (1 )2 x 0.112 x 1
= 0.252
W2 = 1.25 x 0.8 x 2
= 10.0 (1 )2 x 0.112 x 2
= 0.350
W3 = 1 x 5 x 0.9 x 3
= 13.5 1 x 0.112 x 3 = 0.336
W6 = 0.5 x 5 x 1.0 x 6 = 15.0 (1/2)2 x 0.112 x 6 =
0.168
W8 = 0.25 x 5 x 1.0 x 8 = 10.0 (1/4)2 x 0.112 x 8 =
0.056
____
Total. . . . . . . . 54.5 Iron = 0.04 x 24 = 0.960
_____
Total. . . . . . . . .. . . . 2.122
All-day Efficiency = (1 2.122/54.5 + 2.122) x 100 =
96.25%

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
In principle and in general construction, the
autotransformer does not differ from the conventional twowinding transformer, but it differ from the way in which the
primary and the secondary are interrelated. In conventional
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
completely insulated from each other but are magnetically
linked by a common core. In autotransformer, the two
windings, primary and secondary, are both electrically and
magnetically interconnected: a part of the single continuous
winding is common to both primary and secondary.

Two ways in constructing Autotransformer:

1.] in one arrangement, there is a single continuous winding
with taps brought out at a convenient points determined by
the desired secondary voltages.
2.] in other arrangement, there are two or more distinct coils
which are electrically connected to form a continuous
winding.

Autotransformers are cheaper than conventional

two-winding transformers of similar rating. They also
have a better regulation, and operate at a higher
efficiencies. However, they are considered unsafe for
use on ordinary distribution circuits because the highvoltage primary circuit is directly connected to the lowvoltage secondary circuit.
They are frequently used in connection with the
starting of certain types of ca motors, so that lower
than line voltage is applied during the starting period.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformers are used to measure
comparatively high values of current or voltage.
Two kinds of Instrument Transformers:
1.] Current Transformer
-> is used with an ammeter to measure the current in
an ac circuit.
-> in practice, it is connected to ordinary 5-amp
ammeters

-> it has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy wire,

which is always connected in series in the circuit in which
the current is to be measured.
-> the secondary has many turns of comparatively fine
wire, which must always be connected across the ammeter
terminals.
2.] Potential Transformers
-> is used with a voltmeter to measure the potential
difference, or voltage in an ac circuit.
-> are generally employed with standard 150-volt
voltmeters.
Clamp-on or Clip-on Ammeter
-> a practical design of current transformer.
-> has a laminated core so arranged that it may be opened
out at a hinged section by pressing a trigger.
-> when the core is opened, it permits the admission of the
current-carrying conductor, whereupon the trigger is
released and the core is closed tight by a spring. The
current-carrying conductor acts as a single-turn primary,
while the accurately wound secondary is permanently

Important Aspects of Current Transformer

-> is that its secondary must never be permitted to be open-circuited
because, unlike distribution and power transformers which are
connected to constant-potential sources, the voltage across the
primary winding varies over a wide range as the load changes.
Important Aspects of Potential Transformer
-> Potential Transformer are carefully designed, extremely accurateratio step-down transformers. They are used with standard low-range
voltmeters, the deflection of which , when multiplied by the ratio of
transformation, gives the true voltage on the high side. They differ very
little from the ordinary two-winding transformers, except that they
handle a very small amount of power.
TRANSFORMER POLARITY
Transformers are often connected in parallel to supply a common load,
in much the same way as are alternators and dc generators for the
same purpose. Two or three transformers are connected together so
that they may be used in polyphase systems. It is necessary that the
polarity of the transformers be known before the connections are
made.

Polarity of a Transformers
-> refers to the relative directions of the induced voltages in the
primary and secondary windings with respect to the manner in which
the terminal leads are brought out and marked. Standard notations are
additive polarity and subtractive polarity.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Several important conditions must be fulfilled if two or more
transformer are to operate successfully in parallel to deliver a common
load.
These important conditions are:
1.] the voltage ratings of both primaries and secondaries must be
identical. This implies that the transformation ratios are the same.
2.] the transformers must be properly connected with regard to
polarity.
3.] the equivalent impedances should be inversely proportional to the
respective kilovolt-ampere ratings.
4.] the ratio of the equivalent resistance to the equivalent reactance
(Re:Xe) of all transformers should be the same.
*The parallel operation of two or more transformers requires that the
primaries be joined to the same source and that the secondaries be

No-load Operation
When the secondary load is removed, with switch S open, the
primaries will still be energized and secondaries will still remain
connected in parallel. Since the latter are in phase opposition with
respect to each other, no current can circulate in these windings if the
induced voltages are exactly equal; this condition can exist only if the
ratio of transformation of the two transformers are exactly equal. If the
transformer 1 has a ratio of transformation a1 which is different that of
transformer 2, which has a ratio of transformation a2, the circulating
current in the secondary Ic will be
Ic = (a1-a2)Vs / a1Ze1+a2Ze2
Where: Ze1 = equivalent impedance of transformer 1 in secondary
terms
Ze2 = equivalent impedance of transformer 2 in secondary terms

Example 27:
The following information is given in connection with two transformers
that are connected in parallel:
Transformer 1
Transformer 2
rating = 25 kva
rating = 35 kva
2,360/230 volts
2,300/230 volts
Ze = 0.08, in secondary terms Ze = 0.06, in secondary terms
Calculate the secondary circulating current at no load.
Solution:
a1 = 2,360/230 = 10.26

a2 = 2,300/230 = 10

Ic = (10.26 10) 230/ [(10.26 x 0.08) + (10 x 0.06)]

= 59.8 / (0.821 + 0.6)
= 42.1 A

Load OperationEqual Ratios of Transformation

When two transformers having equal ratios of transformation are
connected in parallel, the total load current will divide between them in
inversely as their equivalent impedances.
Example:
The following information is given for two transformers connected in
parallel and delivering a total load of 300 kva:
Transformer 1

Transformer 2

Rating = 150 kva

Rating = 250 kva
6,900/230 volts
6,900/230 volts
Ze = 9.4, in primary terms
Ze = 5.8, in primary term
Calculate the load current and kilovolt-amperes delivered by each
transformer.

Solution:
Total current IT = 300,00 / 6,900 = 43.5 amp
I1 / I2 = 5.8 / 9.4
I1 = (5.8 / 9.4) x I2
Also,
IT = I1 + I2
43.5 = [(5.8 / 9.4) x I2] + I2 = 1.617 I2
I2 = 26.9 amp
I1 = 43.5 26.9 = 16.6 amp
Therefore :
kva1 = 6.9 x 16.6 = 114.4
kva2 = 6.9 x 26.9 = 185.6
total
= 300 kva

Load OperationUnequal Ratios of Transformation

When two transformers having unequal ratios of transformation are
connected in parallel, the total load current will drive in accordance
with the following equations:
I1 = [(a2 a1)Vs + (a2Ze2It)] / [(a1Ze1) + (a2Ze2)]
I2 = [(a1 a2)Vs + (a1Ze1It)] / [(a1Ze1) + (a2Ze2)]
Example:
The transformer of example 27 deliver a total load of 46 kva.
Calculate the secondary currents and the kilovolt-ampere load of each
one.
Solution:
a1 = 10.26
a2 = 10
Ze1 = 0.08 Ze2 = 0.06
It = 46,00 / 230 = 200 amp
I1 = [(10-10.26)230 + (10 x 0.06 x 200)] / [(10.26 x 0.08) + (10 x
0.06)]
= (-59.8 + 120) / 1.421 = 60.2 / 1.421 = 42.4
I2 = [(10.26 10)230 + (10.26 x 0.08 x 200)] / [(10.26 x 0.08) + (10 x
0.06)]
= (59.8 + 164) / 1.421 = 223.8 / 1.421 = 157.6

Three- phase Transformer Connections

Transformers that must handle a considerable amount of power are
generally grouped together in banks for polyphase service. In threephase systems, two or three identical transformers may be used in a
bank for this purpose.
Four standard ways of connecting 3-phase transformer banks:
1.] wye-wye
2.] delta-delta
3.] delta-wye
4.] wye-delta
1.] WYE-WYE CONNECTIONS
If the ratio of transformation is a, the same ratio will exist between
the line voltages on the primary and secondary sides. This connection
will give satisfactory service only if the three-phase load is balanced.
When the load is unbalanced, the electrical neutral will shift from its
exact centre to a point that will make the three lone-to-neutral
voltages unequal. The advantage of this system of connections is that
the insulation is stressed only to the extent of the line-to-neutral
voltage, which is 58% of the line-to-line voltage.

2.]DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
This arrangement is generally used in systems in which
the voltages are high and especially when continuity of
service must be maintained even though one of the
transformers should fail. When one of the transformers is
removed from a delta-delta bank, operation continues on
what is known as open delta. The ratio of transformation
existing between primary and secondary line voltage will
be exactly the same as that of each transformer.
3.] WYE-DELTA CONNECTION
This scheme of connection, is generally employed
where it is necessary to step-up the voltage, for example,
at the beginning of a high-tension transmission system.
On the high sides of transformer, insulation is stressed
only to the extent of 58% of the line-line voltage.

4.] WYE -DELTA CONNECTION

This connection is the reverse of the delta-wye
connection. It is used principally where the voltage is to be
stepped down. It is also employed in moderately lowvoltage distribution circuits for stepping down from
transmission voltages of 4,000 8,000 volts to 230 and
115 volts. The points made concerning delta-wye
connections supply equally well here.
THE V-V CONNECTION
If one of the transformers of a delta-delta bank is
removed and a three-phase source is connected to the
primaries, three equal 3-phase voltages will be measured
at the secondary terminals at no load. This method of

THE T-T CONNECTION

Another 2-transformer method
that can be used to transform 3phase power from one voltage to
another is the T-T connection. It
was first proposed by Charles F.
Scott and is frequently called the
Scott connection.

MAIN TRANSFORMER
-must have at least
two primary and two
secondary coils so that
a center tap may be
brought out from each
other.

TEASER
TRANSFORMER
-must have primary and
secondary windings the
numbers of turns of w/c
are 86.6% of the
respective turns of the
main transformer.

FIG. 212
The kilovolt-ampere ratings of the
MAIN and TEASER TRANSFORMER will be
exactly the same, even thought the
voltage across the latter is only 886.6%
of that across the former.
The reason for this is that kVA loads
carried by the TWO HALVES of the MAIN
TRANSFORMER are out of phase by 6O
electrical degrees; the result is that when
these are vectorially added, their sum
equals the kVA load on the teasier
transforrmer.

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
-more economical to use a three phase
transformer than, as previously
discussed, a bank of three single
phase transformer.
Proper flux densities are maintained
because the three phase currents are
displaced 120 electrical degrees w/
respect to each other.

TWO GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF

THE WINDINGS AND THE CORE
CORE TYPE, the three primary & secondary

windings surround a considerably part of the

magnetic core. FIG. 214a
SHELL TYPE, the magnetic circuits surround a
considerable portion of the 3 phase primary &
secondary windings.
Advantage:
The former transformer can be operated in
open
DELTA should one of the windings be
damaged;