TROPOSPHERIC - DUCTING PROPAGATION

Before proceeding towards the tropospheric propagation, we must know

about the troposphere. We basically have the four layers of atmosphere as
given as under:
1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
Restricting our area of concern towards troposphere only, The
troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends up to 4-12 miles (620 km) high. This is where we live. As the gases in this layer decrease with
height, the air become thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the
troposphere
also
decreases
with
altitude.
As the lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends
from the Earth's surface to a height of slightly over 7 miles. Virtually all
weather phenomena occur in this region. Generally, the troposphere is
characterized by a steady decrease in both temperature and pressure as
height is increased. However, the many changes in weather phenomena
cause variations in humidity and an uneven heating of the Earth's surface.

Radio waves can propagate over the horizon when the lower atmosphere of the
earth bends, scatters, and/or reflects the electromagnetic fields. These effects are
collectively known as tropospheric propagation, or tropo for short.

wavelength decreases as frequency increases and vice versa. Radio waves of

frequencies below 30 megahertz normally have wavelengths longer than the
size of weather turbulences. These radio waves are, therefore, affected very
little by the turbulences. On the other hand, as the frequency increases into the
vhf range and above, the wavelengths decrease in size, to the point that they
become subject to tropospheric scattering. The usable frequency range for
tropospheric scattering is from about 100 megahertz to 10 gigahertz.

There are probably three modes that describes the tropospheric propagation at its best
as given under:
1. Tropospheric: bending
2. Tropospheric: scattering
3. Tropospheric: ducting.

The most well-known form of tropospheric propagation is called bending. Air

reduces radio-wave propagation speed compared with the speed in a vacuum. The
greater the air density, the more the air slows the waves, and thus the greater is the
index of refraction. The density and index of refraction are highest near the surface,
and steadily decrease with altitude.
This produces a tendency for radio waves at very-high frequencies (VHF, 30 to 300
MHz) and ultra-high frequencies (UHF, 300 MHz to 3 GHz) to be refracted toward
the surface. A wave beamed horizontally can follow the curvature of the earth for
hundreds of miles.

Yet another aspect of tropospheric propagation is troposphere scattering.

The lower atmosphere scatters electromagnetic radiation over a vast range, including radio
wavelengths. This effect is known as tropospheric scatter, or tropo scatter.
In general, tropo scatter is most pronounced at UHF and microwave radio frequencies (300
MHz and above). A radio wave beamed slightly above the horizon can be scattered at altitudes
up to several miles, making over-the-horizon communication possible. The greatest
communications range can be realized over flat land or over water. Scattered waves are weak,
so high-power transmitters and sensitive receivers are necessary.
This is because of the height at which scattering takes place. The turbulence that causes the
scattering can be visualized as a relay station located above the horizon; it receives the
transmitted energy and then reradiates it in a forward direction to some point beyond the lineof-sight distance. A high gain receiving antenna aimed toward this scattered energy can then
capture it.
The magnitude of the received signal depends on
1. the number of turbulences causing scatter in the desired direction and
2. the gain of the receiving antenna.
This scattering mode of propagation enables vhf and uhf signals to be transmitted far beyond
the normal line-of-sight. provides a usable signal at distances beyond the point where the
diffracted space wave drops to an unusable level.

The most important feature of tropospheric propagation is the tropospheric ducting.

Tropospheric ducting is a type of radio propagation that tends to happen during periods of
stable, anticyclonic weather. The speed of a radio wave in the atmosphere is determined by the
dielectric property of the air. This property depends on the pressure, temperature and humidity
of the air.
In general as we move upwards through the atmosphere the pressure decreases and
temperature falls. This means that the dielectric property changes with height and allows a
slight increase in the speed of a radio wave as we move upwards through the atmosphere.
This in turn means that if a radio wave moves away from the earth at an angle less than 90
degrees, then the upper part of the wave travels faster than the lower part. Therefore even
under normal conditions this can in effect bend, or refract, the wave back down to earth.
Tropospheric ducting of UHF television signals is relatively common during the summer and
autumn months, and is the result of change in the refractive index of the atmosphere at the
boundary between air masses of different temperatures and humidities. The denser air at
ground level slows the wave front a little more than does the rare upper air, imparting a
downward curve to the wave travel.

Temperature Inversion / Troposphere Ducting: Certain

weather conditions produce a layer of air in the Troposphere that
will be at a higher temperature than the layers of air above and
below it. Such a layer will provide a "duct" creating a path through
the warmer layer of air which has less signal loss than cooler layers
above and below. These ducts occur over relatively long distances
and at varying heights from almost ground level to several hundred
meters above the earth's surface. This propagation takes place when
hot days are followed by rapid cooling at night and affects
propagation in the 50 MHz - 450 MHz range (6 meter, 2 meter, 1 1/4
meter and 70 centimeter bands). Signals can propagate hundreds of
kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300mi).

Have you ever seen a mirage on the road that looks like water, that actually the sky you are
seeing. Light waves that normally travel in a straight line bounce of the super heated windless
pavement and are reflected back to your eyes. The same concept during a duct- but
backwards. Typically straight line VHF, UHF signals begin to travel up and away, but are bent
back by a sharp boundary layer of warm, moist air overlying cool dryer air below and above.
Ducting can occur on a very large scale when a large mass of cold air is overrun by warm air.
This is termed a temperature inversion, and the boundary between the two air masses may
extend for 1,000 miles (1,600 km). It occurs most frequently along coastal areas bordering
large bodies of water. This is the result of natural onshore movement of cool, humid air shortly
after sunset when the ground air cools more quickly than the upper air layers. The same action
may take place in the morning when the rising sun warms the upper layers.
Even though tropospheric ducting has been occasionally observed down to 40 MHz, the
signal levels are usually very weak. Higher frequencies above 90 MHz are generally more
favorably propagated.
High mountainous areas and undulating terrain between the transmitter and receiver can form
an effective barrier to tropospheric signals. Ideally, a relatively flat land path between the
transmitter and receiver is ideal for tropospheric ducting. Sea paths also tend to produce
superior results.

Tropospheric ducting occurs when there is a sharp rate of change in the dielectric constant as we
move upwards through the atmosphere. That probably occurs as a result of
1. rapid increase of temperature and
2. a rapid decrease in humidity (dew-point) with height

If we look at a vertical profile of the

atmosphere showing ducting potential, we can
see that there is a sharp increase in temperature
(an inversion), coupled with a sharp fall in
dew-point (indicating a fall in humidity). The
duct occurs below this inversion in the yellow
shaded area.

Under these conditions we now have the radio wave bent back towards the earth. However, the
radio wave can then reflect back of the earth and become refracted again to return earthwards
once more. This can sometimes occur a number of times with little attenuation but some fading.
The result can be long distance reception of radio waves that would normally have been far
beyond the radio horizon.

Typical conditions required for a good duct to occur are:

1. An increase in temperature by 3 degree celcius or more per 100ft.
2. A rapid decrease of RH (dew-point) with height.
The depth of the duct required for varying wave-lengths is:
1. 50ft for wavelengths around 3cm (approx. 1000MHz)
2. 600ft for wavelengths around 1m (approx. 300MHz)
Typical meteorological conditions which can be favorable for ducting are:
1. Warm dry air over a cooler surface, especially a cool sea
2. Surface cooling under clear skies overland
3. Anticyclone (high pressure) or developing high pressure ridges with a cold
surface.
4. Sea breezes undercutting warm air overland
5. At fronts with a strong thermal contrast

Tropospheric scatter propagation is used for point-to-point communications. A

correctly designed tropospheric scatter circuit will provide highly reliable service
for distances ranging from 50 miles to 500 miles. Tropospheric scatter systems may
be particularly useful for communications to locations in rugged terrain that are
difficult to reach with other methods of propagation.
Due to ducting, radio waves travels in ducts several hundred feet above the ground.
Tropospheric signals exhibit a slow cycle of fading and will occasionally produce
signals sufficiently strong for noise-free stereo, reception of Radio Data
System(RDS) data, and solid locks of HD Radio streams on FM or noise-free, color
TV pictures.
Considering the one of the real time applications, one way to find out if a duct is
opening up is to monitor tv channels that are not used in your area for example if
your local tv channels are 2 and 6 try to see if 4 or 9 are coming.

THANKS