Nevid Pptch2 QBS

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY IN A CHANGING
WORLD, NINTH EDITION

Jeffrey S. Nevid/Spenver A. Rathus/Beverly Greene
Chapter 2
Contemporary Perspectives on
Abnormal Behavior and
Methods of Treatment
2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Biological Perspective

The biological perspective, inspired by scientists and
physicians since the time of Hippocrates, focuses on
the biological underpinnings of abnormal behavior
and the use of biologically based approaches, such as
drug therapy, to treat psychological disorders.
The biological perspective gave rise to the
development of the medical model, which remains
today a powerful force in contemporary
understandings of abnormal behavior.
The Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of neurons, nerve
cells that transmit signals or messages throughout
the body.
Dendrites The rootlike structures at the ends of
neurons that receive messages from other neurons.
Axon The long, thin part of a neuron along which
nerve impulses travel.
The Nervous System

Terminals The small branching structures at the
tips of axons.
Neurotransmitters Chemical substances that
transmit messages from one neuron to another.
Synapse The junction between one neuron and
another across which neurotransmitters pass.
Receptor site A part of a dendrite on a receiving
neuron that is structured to receive a neurotransmitter.
The Anatomy of a Neuron
Transmission of Neural Impulses
Neurotransmitter Functions and

Relationships
The Nervous System
Central Nervous System

Medulla An area of the hindbrain involved in
regulation of heartbeat, respiration, and blood
pressure.
Pons A structure in the hindbrain involved in
body movements, attention, sleep, and respiration.
Cerebellum A structure in the hindbrain involved
in motor behavior, coordination, and balance.

Reticular activating system Brain structure
involved in processes of attention, sleep, and arousal.
Thalamus A structure in the forebrain involved in
relaying sensory information to the cortex and in
processes related to sleep and attention.
Hypothalamus A structure in the forebrain
involved in regulating body temperature, emotion,
and motivation.

Limbic system A group of forebrain structures involved in
emotional processing, memory, and basic drives such as
hunger, thirst, and aggression.
Basal ganglia An assemblage of neurons at the base of the
forebrain involved in regulating postural movements and
coordination.
Cerebrum The large mass of the forebrain, consisting of the
two cerebral hemispheres, responsible for higher mental
functions.
Cerebral cortex The wrinkled surface area of the cerebrum
responsible for processing sensory stimuli and controlling
higher mental functions, such as thinking and use of language.
The Geography of the Brain
Cerebral Cortex
Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes.
Occipital lobe Primarily involved in processing visual
stimuli.
Temporal lobe Involved in processing sounds or
auditory stimuli.
Parietal lobe Involved in processing sensations of
touch, temperature, and pain.
Frontal lobe Controls muscle movement and includes
the prefrontal cortex that regulates higher mental functions
such as thinking, problem-solving, and use of language.
Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic nervous system The division of the peripheral
nervous system that relays information from the sense organs
to the brain and transmits messages from the brain to the
skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system The division of the peripheral
nervous system that regulates the activities of the glands and
involuntary functions.
Sympathetic Pertaining to the division of the autonomic
nervous system whose activity leads to heightened states of
arousal.
Parasympathetic Pertaining to the division of the autonomic
nervous system whose activity reduces states of arousal and
regulates bodily processes that replenish energy reserves.
Evaluating Biological Perspectives

For some disorders, biological processes play the direct
causative role.
For most disorders, the interaction of biological and
environmental factors needs to be examined.
Questions about the genetic bases of abnormal behavior touch
the long-standing nature versus nurture debate.
Scientists today are studying complex interactions between
genes and environmental factors to better understand the
determinants of abnormal behavior patterns.
Epigenetics The field that focuses on how environmental
factors influence genetic expression.
The Psychological Perspective
Psychodynamic Models
Psychoanalytic theory The theoretical model developed by Sigmund
Freud that is based on the belief that the roots of psychological problems
involve unconscious motives and conflicts that can be traced back to
childhood.
also called psychoanalysis.
Conscious To Freud, the part of the mind that corresponds to our
present awareness.
Preconscious To Freud, the part of the mind that contains memories not
in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing attention on
them.
Unconscious To Freud, the part of the mind that lies outside the range
of ordinary awareness and that contains instinctual urges.
The Structure of the Mind
The Structure of Personality

Id The original and unconscious psychic structure,
present at birth, that contains primitive instincts and is
regulated by the pleasure principle.
Pleasure principle The governing principle of the id,
involving demands for immediate gratification of needs.
Ego The psychic structure governed by the reality
principle. It organizes reasonable ways of coping with
frustration and seeks to curb the demands of the id.
The Structure of Personality

Reality principle The governing principle of
the ego, which involves considerations of social
acceptability and practicality.
Superego The psychic structure that
incorporates the values of the parents and
important others and functions as a moral
conscience.
The superego serves as a conscience, or internal
moral guardian, that monitors the ego and
passes judgment on right and wrong.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms The reality-distorting
strategies used by the ego to shield the self from
awareness of anxiety-provoking impulses.
These mechanisms enable us to constrain impulses
from the id as we go about our daily business.
Freud believed that slips of the tongue and ordinary
forgetfulness could represent hidden motives that are
kept out of consciousness by repression.
Stages of Psychosexual Development

In Freuds view, the stages of human development
are psychosexual in nature because they correspond
to the transfer of libidinal energy from one
erogenous zone to another.
Freud proposed the existence of five psychosexual
stages of development: oral (first year of life), anal
(second year of life), phallic (beginning during the
third year of life), latency (from around age 6 to age
12), and genital (beginning in puberty).
Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud believed that phallic-stage children develop
unconscious incestuous desires for the parent of the opposite
gender and begin to view the parent of the same sex as a rival.
Freud dubbed this conflict the Oedipus complex after the
legendary Greek king Oedipus, who unwittingly slew his
father and married his mother.
Fixation In Freudian theory, a constellation of personality
traits associated with a particular stage of psychosexual
development, resulting from either too much or too little
gratification at the stage.
Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung developed his own psychodynamic
theory called analytical psychology and believed that we not
only have a personal unconscious but also inherit a collective
unconscious.
Archetypes Primitive images or concepts that reside in the
collective unconscious.
Karen Horney (18851952) stressed the importance of child
parent relationships in the development of emotional problems.
Ego psychology Modern psychodynamic approach originated
by Heinz Hartmann (18941970) that focuses more on the
conscious strivings of the ego than on the hypothesized
unconscious functions of the id.
Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Erik Erikson (19021994) focused on psychosocial
development and attributed more importance to social
relationships and formation of personal identity than to
unconscious processes.
Object-relations theory The psychodynamic viewpoint
developed by Margaret Mahler that focuses on the influences
of internalized representations of the personalities of parents
and other strong attachment figures (called objects).
Psychodynamic Views on Normality

and Abnormality
In the Freudian model, mental health is a function of
the dynamic balance among the psychic structures of
id, ego, and superego.
Freud believed that the underlying conflicts that give
rise to psychological disorders originate in
childhood and are buried in the depths of the
unconscious.
Psychosis A severe form of disturbed behavior
characterized by impaired ability to interpret reality
and difficulty meeting the demands of daily life.
Learning Models
The behavioral perspective is identified with the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov (18491936), the discoverer of the
conditioned reflex, and the American psychologist John B. Watson
(18781958), the father of behaviorism.
Behaviorism The school of psychology that defines psychology
as the study of observable behavior and that focuses on the role of
learning in explaining behavior.
Watson and other behaviorists, such as Harvard University
psychologist B. F. Skinner (19041990), believed that human
behavior is the product of our genetic inheritance and
environmental or situational influences.
Learning Models
Role of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned response In classical conditioning, a learned
response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus A stimulus that elicits an unlearned
response.
Unconditioned response An unlearned response.
Conditioned stimulus A previously neutral stimulus that
evokes a conditioned response after repeated pairings with an
unconditioned stimulus that had previously evoked that response.
Classical conditioning A form of learning in which a response
to one stimulus can be made to occur to another stimulus by
pairing or associating the two stimuli.
The Classical Conditioning Model
FIGURE 2.7 Schematic diagram of the process of classical conditioning.

Role of Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, responses are acquired and
strengthened by their consequences.
Operant conditioning A form of learning in
which behavior is acquired and strengthened when it
is reinforced.
Reinforcement Changes in the environment
(stimuli) that increase the frequency of the preceding
behavior.
Role of Operant Conditioning

Positive reinforcers Reinforcers that, when
introduced, increase the frequency of the preceding
behavior.
Negative reinforcers Reinforcers that, when
removed, increase the frequency of the preceding
behavior.
Punishment Application of aversive or painful
stimuli that reduces the frequency of the behavior it
follows.
Social-Cognitive Theory
Social-cognitive theory A learning-based theory
that emphasizes observational learning and
incorporates roles for cognitive variables in
determining behavior.
Modeling Learning by observing and imitating
the behavior of others.
Expectancies Beliefs about expected outcomes.
Humanistic Models
Self-actualization In humanistic psychology, the
tendency to strive to become all that one is capable of
being. The motive that drives one to reach ones full
potential and express ones unique capabilities.
Unconditional positive regard Valuing other
people as having basic worth regardless of their
behavior at a particular time.
Conditional positive regard Valuing other people
on the basis of whether their behavior meets ones
approval.
Cognitive Models
Cognitive theorists study the cognitionsthe thoughts,
beliefs, expectations, and attitudesthat accompany
and may underlie abnormal behavior.
They focus on how reality is colored by our
expectations, attitudes, and so forth, and how inaccurate
or biased processing of information about the world
and our places within itcan give rise to abnormal
behavior.
Cognitive theorists believe that our interpretations of
the events in our lives, and not the events themselves,
determine our emotional states.
Information-Processing Models
Information-processing theorists discuss human cognition in
terms such as input (sensory and perceptual processes),
manipulation (interpreting or processing), storage (placing
information in memory), retrieval (accessing information
from memory), and output (acting on the information).
Psychological disorders are seen as disturbances in these
processes.
People with schizophrenia, for example, frequently jump
from topic to topic in a disorganized fashion, which may
reflect problems in retrieving and manipulating information.
Albert Ellis
Psychologist Albert Ellis (1977b, 1993), a prominent
cognitive theorist, believed that troubling events in
themselves do not lead to anxiety, depression, or
disturbed behavior.
Ellis used an ABC approach to explain the causes
of the misery. Being fired is an activating event (A).
The ultimate outcome, or consequence (C), is
emotional distress.
But the activating event (A) and the consequences (C)
are mediated by various beliefs (B).
Aaron Beck
Aaron Beck proposes that depression may result from errors in
thinking or cognitive distortions, such as judging oneself
entirely on the basis of ones flaws or failures and interpreting
events in a negative light (through blue-colored glasses, as it
were).
Beck stresses the four basic types of cognitive distortions that
contribute to emotional distress:
1. Selective abstraction
2. Overgeneralization
3. Magnification
4. Absolutist thinking
The Sociocultural Perspective
Ethnicity and Mental Health

A recent analysis of ethnic group differences in rates of
mental disorders revealed an interesting pattern.
Using data from a nationally representative sample of
adult Americans, investigators found that traditionally
disadvantaged groups (non-Hispanic Black Americans
and Hispanic Americans) had either significantly lower
rates of psychological disorders or comparable rates, as
compared to European Americans (non-Hispanic
Whites), but greater chronicity or persistence.
FIGURE 2.8 Ethnicity and psychological disorders in the United States.
Ethnicity and Mental Health

Native Americans are a traditionally disadvantaged
minority group with high rates of mental disorders (Gone
& Trimble, 2012).
Most commonly alcohol dependence, posttraumatic
stress disorder, and depression (Beals et al., 2005).
Compared to other Hawaiians, Native Hawaiians
experience higher rates of mental health problems,
including higher suicide rates among men, higher rates of
alcoholism and drug abuse, and higher rates of antisocial
behavior.
Evaluating the Sociocultural Perspective

Social causation model The belief that social
stressors, such as poverty, account for the greater risk
of severe psychological disorders among people of
lower socioeconomic status.
Downward drift hypothesis The theory that
explains the linkage between low socioeconomic
status and behavior problems by suggesting that
problem behaviors lead people to drift downward in
social status.
The Biopsychosocial Perspective

The biopsychosocial perspective examines the contributions of
multiple factors representing biological, psychological, and
sociocultural domains, as well as their interactions, in the
development of psychological disorders.
Even disorders that are primarily biological may be influenced by
psychological factors, or vice-versa.
For example, some phobias may be learned behaviors that are
acquired through experiences in which particular objects became
associated with traumatic or painful experiences. Yet, some people
may inherit certain traits that make them susceptible to the
development of acquired or conditioned phobias.
The Diathesis-Stress Model

Diathesis-stress model A model that posits that abnormal
behavior problems involve the interaction of a vulnerability or
predisposition and stressful life events or experiences.
Diathesis A vulnerability or predisposition to a particular
disorder.
In some cases, people with a diathesis for a particular disorder,
say schizophrenia, will remain free of the disorder or will
develop a milder form of the disorder if the level of stress in
their lives remains low or if they develop effective coping
responses for handling the stress they encounter.
The Diathesis-Stress Model
Methods of Treatment
Types of Helping Professionals

Clinical psychologists Have earned a doctoral degree in
psychology (either a Ph.D., or Doctor of Philosophy; a
Psy.D., or Doctor of Psychology; or an Ed.D., or Doctor of
Education) from an accredited college or university.
Counseling psychologists Also hold doctoral degrees in
psychology and have completed graduate training preparing
them for careers in college counseling centers and mental
health facilities.
Psychiatrists Have earned a medical degree (M.D.) and
completed a residency program in psychiatry.
Types of Helping Professionals

Clinical or psychiatric social workers Have earned a masters degree in
social work (M.S.W.) and use their knowledge of community agencies and
organizations to help people with severe mental disorders receive the
services they need.
Psychoanalysts Typically are either psychiatrists or psychologists who
have completed extensive additional training in psychoanalysis.
Counselors Have typically earned a masters degree by completing a
graduate program in a counseling field. Counselors work in many settings,
including public schools, college testing and counseling centers, and
hospitals and health clinics.
Psychiatric nurses Typically are R.N.s who have completed a masters
program in psychiatric nursing.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy A structured form of treatment
derived from a psychological framework that
consists of one or more verbal interactions or
treatment sessions between a client and a therapist.
Psychotherapy is used to treat psychological
disorders, to help clients change maladaptive
behaviors or solve problems in living, or to help
them develop their unique potentials.
Psychodynamic Therapy
Psychoanalysis The first method of
psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud.
Psychodynamic therapy Therapy that helps
individuals gain insight into, and resolve,
unconscious conflicts.
Free association The method of verbalizing
thoughts as they occur without a conscious attempt
to edit or censure them.
Dream Analysis
In psychoanalytic theory, dreams have two levels of content:
1. Manifest content: The material of the dream the dreamer experiences and
reports.
2. Latent content: The unconscious material the dream symbolizes or
represents.
Freud believed dreams represented the royal road to the unconscious.
Transference relationship In psychoanalysis, the clients transfer or
generalization to the analyst of feelings and attitudes the client holds toward
important figures in his or her life.
Countertransference In psychoanalysis, the transfer of feelings or attitudes
that the analyst holds toward other persons in her or his life onto the client.
Modern Psychodynamic Approaches

Like Freudian psychoanalysis, the newer psychodynamic
therapists explore their clients psychological defenses and
transference relationships a process described as peeling the
onion (Gothold, 2009).
They focus more on the clients present relationships and
encourage the client to make adaptive behavior changes and
treatment entails a more open dialogue.
Many contemporary psychodynamic therapists draw more
heavily on the ideas of Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, and other
theorists than on Freuds ideas.
Behavioral Therapy
Behavior therapy The systematic application of the
principles of learning to treat psychological disorders.
Systematic desensitization A behavior therapy
technique for overcoming phobias by means of exposure
to progressively more fearful stimuli while one remains
deeply relaxed.
Gradual exposure A behavior therapy technique for
overcoming fears through direct exposure to
increasingly fearful stimuli.
Behavioral Therapy
Modeling A behavior therapy technique for helping
an individual acquire a target behavior by observing a
therapist or another individual demonstrate the
behavior and then imitating it.
Token economy Behavioral treatment program in
which a controlled environment is constructed such
that people are reinforced for desired behaviors by
receiving tokens that may be exchanged for desired
rewards.
Humanistic Therapy
Humanistic therapists focus on clients subjective,
conscious experiences.
Like behavior therapists, humanistic therapists also
focus more on what clients are experiencing in the
presentthe here and nowthan on the past.
The major form of humanistic therapy is personcentered therapy (also called client-centered
therapy), which was developed by the psychologist
Carl Rogers.
Person-Centered Therapy
Person-centered therapy The establishment of a
warm, accepting therapeutic relationship that frees
clients to engage in self-exploration and achieve
self-acceptance.
Person-centered therapy is nondirective.
The therapist uses reflectionthe restating or
paraphrasing of the clients expressed feelings
without interpreting them or passing judgment on
them.
Person-Centered Therapy
Unconditional positive regard The expression of
unconditional acceptance of another persons intrinsic worth.
Empathy The ability to understand someones experiences
and feelings from that persons point of view.
Genuineness The ability to recognize and express ones
true feelings.
Congruence The fit between ones thoughts, behaviors,
and feelings.
Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapy A form of therapy that helps
clients identify and correct faulty cognitions
(thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes) believed to
underlie their emotional problems and maladaptive
behavior.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

Albert Ellis believed that negative emotions such as anxiety
and depression are caused by the irrational ways in which
we interpret or judge negative events, not by negative events
themselves.
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) A
therapeutic approach that focuses on helping clients replace
irrational, maladaptive beliefs with alternative, more
adaptive beliefs.
Rational emotive behavior therapists help clients substitute
more effective interpersonal behavior for self-defeating or
maladaptive behavior.
Becks Cognitive Therapy

Psychiatrist Aaron Beck and his colleagues developed
cognitive therapy, which, like REBT, focuses on peoples
faulty thoughts and beliefs.
Cognitive therapists encourage clients to recognize and
change errors in their thinking, called cognitive distortions,
such as tendencies to magnify negative events and minimize
personal accomplishments, that affect their moods and
impair their behavior.
Cognitive therapists have clients record the thoughts that are
prompted by upsetting events and note the connections
between their thoughts and their emotional responses.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) A learning-based
approach to therapy incorporating cognitive and behavioral
techniques.
CBT attempts to integrate therapeutic techniques that help
individuals make changes not only in their overt behavior
but also in their underlying thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.
CBT draws on the assumption that thinking patterns and
beliefs affect behavior and that changes in these cognitions
can produce desirable behavioral and emotional changes.
Overview of Major Types of Psychotherapy
Eclectic Therapy
Eclectic therapy An approach to psychotherapy that
incorporates principles or techniques from various systems or
theories.
An eclectic therapist might use behavior therapy techniques to
help a client change specific maladaptive behaviors, for
example, along with psychodynamic techniques to help the
client gain insight into the childhood roots of the problem.
Some therapists are technical eclectics.
Other eclectic therapists are integrative eclectics.
FIGURE 2.10 Therapeutic orientations of clinical psychologists.
Group, Family, and Couple Therapy

Group therapy A form of therapy in which a group
of clients meets together with a therapist.
Family therapy A form of therapy in which the
family, not the individual, is the unit of treatment.
Couple therapy A form of therapy that focuses on
resolving conflicts in distressed couples.
Group Therapy
What are some of the advantages of group
therapy over individual therapy?
What are some of the disadvantages?
Family Therapy
In family therapy, the family, not the individual, is
the unit of treatment. Family therapists help family
members communicate more effectively with one
anotherfor example, to air their disagreements in
ways that are not hurtful to individual members.
Family therapists also try to prevent one member of
the family from becoming the scapegoat for the
familys problems.
Evaluating Methods of Psychotherapy

Reviews of the scientific literature often utilize a statistical technique
called meta-analysis, which averages the results of a large number of
studies to determine an overall level of effectiveness.
In the most frequently cited meta-analysis of psychotherapy research,
M. L. Smith and Glass (1977) analyzed the results of some 375
controlled studies comparing various types of therapies
(psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, etc.) against control groups.
The results of their analyses showed that the average psychotherapy
client in these studies was better off than 75% of the clients who
remained untreated.
Evaluating Methods of Psychotherapy

Although evidence supports the effectiveness of
psychotherapy, researchers lack clarity about why it
worksthat is, what factors or processes account for
therapeutic change (Carey, 2011).
Suggests the effectiveness of different forms of
psychotherapy may have more to do with the
common features.
Nonspecific treatment factors Factors not specific
to any one form of psychotherapy, such as therapist
attention and support, and creating positive
expectancies of change.
Empirically Supported Treatments

(ESTs)
Another approach to determining whether
particular therapies are effective in treating
particular problems is known as empirically
supported treatments or ESTs.
Efficacy studies speak to the issue of whether a
treatment works better than control conditions.
Effectiveness studies examine whether particular
treatments are effective when used by practitioners.
Multicultural Issues in Psychotherapy

Normal and abnormal behaviors occur in a context of
culture and community.
Therapists need to be sensitive to cultural differences
and how they affect the therapeutic process.
We must also recognize that just because a given
therapy works with one population does not mean
that it will necessarily work with another population.
African Americans
The cultural history of African Americans must be understood
in the context of persistent racial discrimination.
Therapists need to be aware of the tendency of African
American clients to minimize their vulnerability by being less
self-disclosing (Sanchez-Hucles, 2000).
Therapists must be aware of the cultural characteristics such as
strong kinship bonds, strong religious and spiritual orientation,
multigenerational households, adaptability and flexibility of
gender roles, and distribution of child-care responsibilities
among different family members.
Therapists must recognize how stereotypes can become
destructive to the therapeutic relationships they form with
African American clients.
Asian Americans
Culturally sensitive therapists not only understand the
beliefs and values of other cultures but also integrate this
knowledge within the therapy process.
Generally speaking, Asian cultures, including Japanese
culture, value restraint in talking about oneself and ones
feelings.
Public expression of emotions is also discouraged in
Asian cultures, which may inhibit Asian clients from
revealing their feelings in therapy.
Hispanic Americans
Although Hispanic American subcultures differ in various
respects, many share certain cultural values and beliefs, such as
the importance placed on the family and kinship ties, as well as
on respect and dignity (Calzada, Fernandez, & Cortes, 2010).
Therapists need to recognize that the traditional Hispanic
American value of interdependency within the family may
conflict with the values of independence and self-reliance that
are stressed in the mainstream U.S. culture.
Therapists should also be trained to reach beyond the confines
of their offices to work within the Hispanic American
community itself, in settings that have an impact on the daily
lives of Hispanic Americans.
Native Americans
Native Americans remain underserved, partly as a result of
underfunding and the cultural gap between providers and
recipients.
Mental health professionals can help Native Americans if
they work within a context that is relevant and sensitive to
Native Americans customs, culture, and values (Gone &
Trimble, 2012).
Many Native Americans expect that the therapist will do most
of the talking and they will play a passive role in treatment.
There may also be differences in nonverbal expression that
can impede effective communication between the therapist
and the client (Renfrey, 1992).
Barriers to Use of Mental Health

Services by Ethnic Minorities
Barriers that exist for ethnic minorities include the
following:
1. Cultural mistrust
2. Mental health literacy
3. Institutional barriers
4. Cultural barriers
5. Language barriers
6. Economic and accessibility barriers
Biomedical Therapies
There is a growing emphasis in American psychiatry on biomedical
therapies, especially the use of psychotropic drugs (also called
psychiatric drugs).
Psychopharmacology The field of study that examines the
effects of therapeutic or psychiatric drugs.
Today, roughly one in five adult Americans takes psychotropic
drugs (Smith, 2012).
Psychosurgery has been all but eliminated as a form of treatment
because of serious harmful effects of earlier procedures.
Drug Therapy
Different classes of psychotropic drugs are used in treating
many types of psychological disorders.
But all the drugs in these classes act on neurotransmitter
systems in the brain, affecting the delicate balance of
chemicals that ferry nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.
The major classes of psychiatric drugs are antianxiety drugs,
antipsychotic drugs, and antidepressants, as well as lithium,
which is used to treat mood swings in people with bipolar
disorder.
Antianxiety Drugs
Antianxiety drugs Drugs that combat anxiety and
reduce states of muscle tension by reducing central
nervous system activity.
They include mild tranquilizers, such as diazepam
(Valium) and alprazolam (Xanax), as well as hypnotic
sedatives, such as triazolam (Halcion).
Rebound anxiety The experiencing of strong
anxiety following withdrawal from a tranquilizer.
Antipsychotic Drugs
Antipsychotic drugs Drugs used to treat schizophrenia or
other psychotic disorders.
The use of neuroleptics has greatly reduced the need for
more restrictive forms of treatment for severely disturbed
patients, such as physical restraints and confinement in
padded cells, and has lessened the need for long-term
hospitalization.
Neuroleptics are not without their problems, including
potential side effects such as muscular rigidity and tremors.
Antidepressants
Antidepressants Drugs used to treat depression
that affect the availability of neurotransmitters in the
brain.
The third class of antidepressants, selective
serotonin-reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs, have more
specific effects on serotonin function in the brain.
Drugs in this class include fluoxetine (Prozac) and
sertraline (Zoloft).
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A treatment in
which an electric shock is sent through the patients
brain, sufficient to induce convulsions.
People with major depression show significant
improvement following ECT.
ECT is associated with memory loss for events
occurring around the time of treatment and high
relapse rates.
ECT is generally considered a treatment of last resort
after less intrusive methods have been tried and failed.
Psychosurgery
Psychosurgery is yet more controversial than ECT and is
rarely practiced today.
Although no longer performed today, the most common
form of psychosurgery was the prefrontal lobotomy.
This procedure involved surgically severing nerve
pathways linking the thalamus to the prefrontal lobes of
the brain.
Evaluation of Biological Approaches

There is little doubt that biological treatments have helped
many people with severe psychological problems.
On the other hand, some forms of psychotherapy may be as
effective as drug therapy in treating anxiety disorders and
depression.
Although we continue to learn more about the biological
foundations of abnormal behavior patterns, the interface
between biology and behavior can be construed as a two-way
street.
The End

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY IN A CHANGING

WORLD, NINTH EDITION

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Biological Perspective

The Nervous System

The Nervous System

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Anatomy of a Neuron

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Transmission of Neural Impulses

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Neurotransmitter Functions and

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nervous System

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Geography of the Brain

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Peripheral Nervous System

Evaluating Biological Perspectives

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The Psychological Perspective

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2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Structure of the Mind

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The Structure of Personality

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The Structure of Personality

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Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stages of Psychosexual Development

Other Psychodynamic Theorists

Other Psychodynamic Theorists

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Psychodynamic Views on Normality

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Role of Classical Conditioning

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The Classical Conditioning Model

FIGURE 2.7 Schematic diagram of the process of classical conditioning.

Role of Operant Conditioning

Role of Operant Conditioning

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The Sociocultural Perspective

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Ethnicity and Mental Health

FIGURE 2.8 Ethnicity and psychological disorders in the United States.

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Ethnicity and Mental Health

Evaluating the Sociocultural Perspective

The Biopsychosocial Perspective

The Diathesis-Stress Model

The Diathesis-Stress Model

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2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Helping Professionals

Types of Helping Professionals

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