CHAPTER 1:

Structure and Function of the Muscular, Neuromuscular,

Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems

Objectives :
AFTER COMPLETION OF THIS
CHAPTER:
Describe macro and micro structures
describe sliding filament theory.
Describe muscle fiber types and its
involvement in sports
Describe CV and respiratory systems.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Each skeletal muscle is an organ.
it contains muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerves and blood vessels.

Fibrous connective tissue (epimysium) covers more than 430

skeletal muscles.

Macrostructure and Microstructure:

Epimysium is continuous with the tendons at the
end of the muscle.
Tendon is attached to the bone
periosteum( connective tissue over the bone)
Limb muscles have two attachments proximal and
distal.
Trunk muscles have two attachments superior and
inferior.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle fibers are also referred to
as muscle cells.
Muscle fibers are multi nucleated
Muscle fibers are grouped in
bundles called fasciculi.
Each fasciculus is surrounded by
perimysium.
Each muscle fib is surrounded by
endomysium.
Endomysium is continuous with
the fibers membrane,
sarcolemma.
All the connective tissues
epimysium, perimysium and
endomysium are continuous with
the tendon so tension developed
in the mus cell is transmitted to
the tendon.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Neuromuscular
junction:
The junction between the
motor neuron and mus
fiber it innervates is called
motor end plate.
Each mus cell has only 1
neuromus junction
A motor neuron can
innervate many mus fibers.
A motor neuron and the
mus fibers it innervates
are called motor unit.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE FIBER:
Sarcoplasm: contains contractile components, stored
glycogen, fats, enzymes, organelles such as mitochondria
and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Cross bridges protrude away

from the myosin filament at
regular intervals.
Actin filaments consist of two
strands arranged in double helix
Myosin and actin are organised
in the the sarcomere (smallest
functional unit of skeletal mus).
Sarcomere are repeated in the
entire length of the mus fiber.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Myosin filaments are anchored to
each other at the M bridge in the
centre of the sarcomere.
Actin filaments are anchored at the Zline at either ends of the sarcomere.
6 actin surround each myosin and 3
myosin surround each actin.
alternating dark and light patterns
due to myosin and actin filaments.
Dark A band corresponds with the
alignment of the myosin filaments.
I band corresponds with actin in 2
adjacent sarcomeres.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
H zone is the area in the
center of the sarcomere
where only myosin are
present.
During mus contraction H
zone decreases as the actin
slides over the myosin
towards the center of the
sarcomere.
I band also decreases during
mus contraction.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Each myofibril is
surrounded by system of
tubules called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Calcium is stored in the
vesicles of SR.
T tubules run
perpendicular to SR
Action potential travels
through T tubules which
releases calcium from
the vesicles located at
the terminal end of the
SR.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY :
the actin at each end slides inwards on
myosin pulling the Z-lines.
Resting Phase: little Ca is present in the
myofibril, most of it is in the SR so very
few myosin are engaged. No tension is
developed and hence the mus is said to
be at rest.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY :

Excitation Contraction
Coupling Phase :
SR stimulated to release CA
CA binds to troponin C
Moves the other protein fil
tropomyosin
Exposes the binding site on
actin
Thus the crossbridge heads
bind to actin
* The amount of force produced is directly
related to the number of crossbridges
bound to actin cross sectionally at that
instance.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY :
Contraction Phase :
Energy for cross bridge flexion comes from
hydrolysis of ATP catalyzed by myosin
ATPase.
Another ATP should replace ADP on myosin
head for the head to detach and recock.
This allows the contraction process to
continue.
CA is available contraction process continues
CA not available results in relaxation.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY :
Recharge Phase :
the sequence of events of muscle
shortening:
CA binding to troponin- actomyosin complex
formation
crossbridge flexion
dissociation of actin and myosin
recocking of myosin crossbridge heads is
repeated over and over , this occurs as long as CA
is available,
ATP is available for uncoupling of actomyosin
complex and myosin ATPase is available to

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY :
Relaxation Phase :
Occurs when stimuli from the motor
nerve stops
CA pumped back to SR and thus
preventing the coupling of actomyosin.
Relaxation is due to actin and myosin
returning to their unbound state.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle fibers are innervated by motor
neurons that transmit impulse in the form
of electrochemical signals.
A motor neuron has terminal branches at
the end of the axon that innervates many
mus fibers.
The whole structure determines the mus
fiber type, function and involvement in
exercise.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Activation of the
muscles:
When motor neuron fires all the
fibers that it serves get active
and develop force.
Control depends on the number
of fibers in a motor unit ( eg.
Eye and quads)
A mus is activated by the arrival
of action potential ( AP)to the
nerve terminal
Actyl choline is released
Acetylcholine diffuses across
the NMJ
Once sufficient amount of
actylcholine is released an
action potential is generated
This causes excitation of the
sarcolemma thus fiber contracts

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Activation of the
muscles:
All-or none principle (either all
fibers contract or they dont contract
at all) e.g gun fire.
Each AP results in a short period of
activation of mus fiber referred to as
twitch.
Summation of two twitches before
complete relaxation of the first twitch
results in greater force.
Decrease in time interval between
the twitches results in higher forces.
At High frequency stimuli twitches
merge and fuse eventually
( tetni/tetnus)

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle fiber types:
fast twitch and slow twitch( based on
twitch time)
FT has short twitch time( develops high
peak force and relaxes rapidly) and vice
versa for ST.
Multiple fiber types e.g type I, type IIA
and type II X.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Motor Unit Recruitment Patterns During Exercise :
Muscles have ability to gradate force for a smooth,
co- ordinated patterns of movement.
Firing frequency:
varying force output is esp imp for smaller muscles.
At low forces most of the motor units are activated.
Increase force out put is achieved due to increase in
frequency.

Recruitment:
Force can be varied by varying the no of motor units
recruited.
In Large muscles motor units are activated at near titanic
freq, increase in force output are achieved by recruiting
more motor units.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Complete motor neuron pool
activation is not possible in untrained
individuals.
Under most circumstances activation
of the FT units are not possible at
high frequency for max force to be
realized.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Preloading:
Max force does not occur early in ROM if mus is unloaded
prior to mus action esp. during fast movements.
Mus fiber do not run the entire length of the mus.
Some fib that are active in the early ROM will not be
active if they are not loaded prior to mus action.
Lifting weights preloads the muscle to develop sufficient
force to overcome inertia.
Isokinetic, hydraulics and friction based apparatus do not
preload
Research suggest preloading early in the ROM during
high velocities is imp to develop strength.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Proprioception:
Proprioceptionis the process by which the body can vary
muscle contraction in response to incoming information
regarding external forces, by utilizing stretch receptors in the
muscles to keep track of the joint position in the body.
are specialized sensory receptors located in joints, mus and
tendons.
Sensitive to pressure and tension.
proprioceptors along with vestibular system Relay info about
mus dynamics to the CNS. i.e kinesthetic sense, positions of
body parts with respect to gravity.
this info is processed at subconscious level. conscious
activity is not dedicated towards tasks such as maintaining
posture or position of body parts.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle spindles:
Modified fibers enclosed in a
sheath of connective tissue are
also called as intrafusal fibers.
Provide info regarding change
in length and rate of change in
length.
Sensory neuron of the mus
spindles synapses with the
motor neuron.
Mus that perform precise
movements have many mus
spindles per unit of mass to
help control exact contractile
activity.
Mus spindles facilitate mus
activiation.
Eg is knee jerk reflex

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Golgi tendon organs:
Located in tendons near
musculo tendinous junction.
They are in series with the
mus fibers.
They get activated when
tendon is stretched due to
tension in the mus.
Sensory neuron of the GTO
synapses with an inhibitory
inter neuron which in turn
synapses with the motor
neuron.
GTO inhibits mus activation.

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM
Older muscle:
Sarcopenia loss of size and strength of
muscle.
Mus function is reduced.
Its more pronounced in weight bearing
extensor mus.
Mus atrophy is due to losses in number
and size of mus fibers esp. type II.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Primary roles of the CV system:
Transport of O2 n nutrients
Removal of waste products
Regulation of acid-base function, temp
and other physiological functions.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Heart:
Is a muscular
organ.
Has interconnected
but separate
pumps.
Atria and the
ventricles.
Atrium pumps the
blood to the
ventricles.
Ventricles pump
the blood to the

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Valves :
Consists of atrio-ventricular (AV)
valves which prevents the flow of
blood from ventricles to the atrium
during systole( ventricular
contraction).
AV valve consists of tricuspid and
mitral( bicuspid) valve.
Also consists of semilunar valves
which prevents the back flow of
blood from pulmonary artery and
aorta back to the ventricles during
diastole ( ventricular relaxation).
Semilunar valves consists of
pulmonary valve and aortic valve.
Each valve closes passively i.e
when a backward pressure gradient
pushes the valves against it.
Opens during a fwd pressure
gradient.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Conduction system:
A specialised electrical
conduction system controls the
mechanical contraction of the
heart.
SA node: intrinsic pacemakerrhythmic electrical impulse are
initiated.
Internodal pathways: conducts
impulse from SA node to AV
node.
AV node : impulse is delayed
before reaching the ventricles.
AV bundles: conducts impulse to
the ventricles
Left and right bundles further
divide into Purkinje fibers:
transmits impulse to all parts of
the ventricles

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
conduction system of the heart is controlled by the CV center
of the medulla.
Which transmits signals through symph. and parasymph.
nervous system( components of Autonomic Nervous System).
Atria are supplied with both symph and para symph.
Ventricles exclusively with symph
Stimulation of Symph NS accelerates the depolarization of the
SA node thus making the heart to beat faster.
Para symph slows the discharge of SA node thus slowing the
heart rate.
RHR ranges from 60 to 100bpm
Below 60 is bradychardia
Above 100 is tachycardia

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Electrocardiogram: is the electrical
activity of the heart at the surface
of the body.
comprises of P wave, QRS complex
& T wave.
P wave and QRS complex are
electrical depolarization ( electrical
stimulus leading to mechanical
contraction)
T wave is repolarization of the
ventricle
Depolarization :
Is the reversal of the membrane
electrical potential ( from negative to
positive inside and vice versa outside
the membrane).

Repolarization :
recovery from the state of
depolarization.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Blood vessels:
Closed circuit
system with 2
components:
Arterial system:
carries blood away
from the heart.
Venous system:
returns blood
towards the heart.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Arteries :
Rapidly transport blood away from the heart.
Has strong muscular walls to withstand high pressure of blood
pumped by the heart.
Divided into arterioles , control vessels through which blood
enters the capillaries.
Arterioles can alter blood flow to the cap. In response to the
tissues needs, Due to its strong mus walls by dilation or
constriction.

Capillaries :
Walls are very thin and permeable
Allow exchange of O2, fluids, nutrients, electrolytes, hormones
etc. between blood and interstitial fluid of the tissues.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Veins :
Venules collect blood from capillaries.
Gradually converge into larger veins.
Transports blood back to the heart.
Walls of the veins are thin coz of low pressure.
This allows it to constrict or dilate to greater
degree.
Thus acts as reservoirs.
Some veins have valves preventing
retrograde blood flow.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Blood :
Paramount functions is the transport of O2 to the tissues for
cell metabolism and removal of CO2 from the tissues to the
lungs.
transport of O2 is done by haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin plays an imp role as an acid-base buffer
(in the presence of increased hydrogen ions, hemoglobin has less
affinity for oxygen and this means that hemoglobin will "unload"
oxygen more readily in the capillaries of metabolically active tissues
which are liberating H+ions and CO2, both of which contribute to a
more acidic pH environment; this property is known as the Bohr
effect..)
(carbonic anhydrase)
CO2 + H2O <============> H2CO3<============>

H+ +

carbon dioxide +water carbonic acid hydrogen ion + bicarbonate ion

HCO3-

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Primary function of the system
is basic exchange of O2 and
CO2.
Air passes through the nose
and nasal cavities humidifying,
warming and purifying the air.
Air is transported to the lungs
through trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles.
Air travels through 23
generations of bronchioles
before it reaches the alveoli.
Exchange of gases happens at
the alveoli.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Movement of air in and out of the lungs happen
due to expansion and recoil of the lungs.
Lungs do not actively expand and recoil but it is
acted upon to do so:
By downward & upward movement of the diaphragm
( lengthen & shorten chest cavity)
& by elevation & depression of the ribs ( to increase &
decrease front to back diameter of the chest)

During breathing at rest:

During inspiration, Contraction of diaphragm creates
negative pressure( vaccum) in the chest cavity, which
draws air in the lungs.
During expiration diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of
the lungs, chest wall and abdo compresses the lungs
and expels the air out.

breathing during exe:

Elastic forces alone are not powerful enough to provide
necessary respiratory response.
During inspiration, elevation of the ribs is done by
external intercostals, serratus anterior, scaleni and
sternocleidomastoid.
During expiration, depression of the chest is done by
internal intercostals, rectus abdo, external obliques,
internal obliques and transversus.

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