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Michael McCarthy
Chapter four
Discourse Analysis and
Phonology
4.1 Introduction
Under the heading of phonology in this chapter we
shall take a brief look at what has traditionally been
thought of as 'pronunciation', but devote most of o
ur attention to intonation. This is partly because th
e most exciting developments in the analysis of disc
ourse have been in intonation studies rather than at
the segmental level (the study of phonemes and the
ir articulation) and partly because intonation teachi
ng, where it has taken place, has proceeded on the
basis of assumptions that are open to challenge fro
m a discourse analyst's viewpoint..
4.2 Pronunciation
Traditional pronunciation teaching has found it
s strength in the ability of linguists to segment t
he sounds of language into discrete items calle
d phonemes which, when used in the constructi
on of words, produce meaningful contrasts wit
h other words.
Example
The phonemes /p/ and /b/ in English give us cont
rasts such as pump and bump, pat and bat, etc.
4.3 Rhythm
When we listen to a stretch of spoken English discourse, we often feel th
at there is a rhythm or regularity to it, which gives it a characteristic sou
nd, different from other languages and not always well-imitated by forei
gn learners. The impression of rhythm may arise out of a feeling of alter
nation between strong and weak 'beats' in various patterned recurrence
s:
/
-- -- / --/ -- - (4.1) Most of the people were visitors.
-- /
-- /
-/
-- /
(4.2) A friend of mine has bought a boat.
Brown (1977) found such recurring patterns in her recordings of broadc
ast talk. But other natural speech is often not as regular as this, nor will
the patterns necessarily recur in the same way at different times.
JApaNESE
1 represents so-called primary stress, and 2 s
econdary stress.
but it is clear that prominence can occur diffe
rently on these two syllables, or indeed not a
t all, depending on the speaker's choice as to
where the main stress( the "sentence stress",
or "tonic") is placed in the utterance.
(the main stresses are underlined)
1. ACtually, she's japaNESE
2. a JApanese SHIP-owner's been KIDnapped
3. i thought SHE was japanese, NOT HIM
JApaNESE
1 mewakili disebut stres utama, dan 2 stres sekun
der.
tetapi jelas bahwa menonjol dapat terjadi berbed
a pada dua suku kata tersebut, atau memang tida
k sama sekali, tergantung pada pilihan pembicara
ke mana stres utama ("kalimat stres", atau "toni
k") ditempatkan di ucapan.
(tekanan utama digarisbawahi)
1. ACtually, she's japaNESE
1. a CUP of TEA
2. the THIRD of APril
3. WHERE'S the BREADknife?
Kapan dan mengapa speaker melampirkan menonjol untuk suku kata dan, de
ngan demikian, untuk kata-kata yang mengandung mereka suku kata dalam u
capan-ucapan mereka?
1. CUP TEA
2. ketiga bulan April
3. MANA breadknife itu?
Kata-kata non-menonjol (a, dari, yang) yang, karena itu, diambil untuk diberik
an; mereka tidak mewakili pilihan dari daftar alternatif: "secangkir teh" bukan
merupakan alternatif untuk "cangkir dengan / dari teh" dalam keadaan yang p
aling dibayangkan. Tapi, sama-sama, "yang breadknife" tidak dalam arti seben
arnya pilihan dari saya / / a / breadknife Mrs Jone yang Anda dalam kebanyak
an situasi, karena pembicara mengasumsikan, atau proyek asumsi bahwa pis
au yang hilang adalah satu dalam penggunaan normal di rumah tangga dan b
ahwa hal itu tidak perlu secara khusus mengidentifikasi lebih dari oleh.
(4.39)
A: / are there MANY good REcord shops in tow
n? /
A:
/ MM /
(4.40) / IS it INteresting? /
4.8 Key
The relative level of pitch between one part of an utterance and another ca
n often be heard to change, to jump upwards, or to drop and trail off. We a
re all familiar with utterances where the speaker's pitch level suddenly rise
s, as in B's reply in (4.57), where we can show the jump by moving to the li
ne above in our transcription:
(4.57) A: / IS that COUsin of yours still here? /
B: / she's my/
SISter NOT my
COUsin! /
B: / / /
4.11 Conclusion
Lower-level learners often have to encode utterances in L2 word-by-word, and
under such conditions, appropriate tone-grouping, prominence, tone and key
may simply not be realized. This fact might argue for giving learners the opport
unity to practice intonation using words and phrases they are already familiar
with and do not have to struggle too much with on the level of lexico-grammati
cal encoding.
There are certainly practical conclusions to be drawn from the interactive desc
riptions we have examined. For one thing, the simple fall and the fallrise are
definitely the most useful tones to present and practice first, since they fulfill s
uch basic, everyday functions, and they can be presented in contrast with each
other in the same utterance or exchange, as in examples (4.51-55).
The key system is also relatively straightforward and easily graspable, and cont
extualized dialogues and situations can be devised to elicit different keys. Pitch
rise and drops at topic and sub-topic boundaries can be practiced in prepared
talks and anecdote-telling. Such discrete-level practice is probably more manag
eable than trying to elicit the whole complex system of choices in one go.
Peserta didik yang lebih rendah tingkat sering harus menyandikan ucapan di L2 ka
ta-demi-kata, dan di bawah kondisi seperti itu, sesuai nada-pengelompokan, meno
njol, nada dan kunci mungkin hanya tidak terwujud. Fakta ini mungkin berpendap
at untuk memberikan pelajar kesempatan untuk berlatih intonasi menggunakan k
ata dan frase mereka sudah akrab dengan dan tidak harus berjuang terlalu banyak
dengan pada tingkat Lexico-gramatikal encoding.
Ada kesimpulan pasti praktis yang bisa ditarik dari uraian interaktif kami telah dip
eriksa. Untuk satu hal, jatuhnya sederhana dan jatuhnya bertingkat pasti nada pali
ng berguna untuk menyajikan dan praktek pertama, karena mereka memenuhi da
sar, fungsi sehari-hari seperti, dan mereka dapat disajikan berbeda satu sama lain
dalam ucapan atau pertukaran yang sama, seperti dalam contoh (4,51-55).
Sistem kunci juga relatif mudah dan mudah graspable, dan dialog dan situasi kont
ekstual dapat dirancang untuk memperoleh kunci yang berbeda. Lapangan kenaik
an dan tetes di topik dan sub-topik batas dapat dipraktekkan dalam pembicaraan s
iap dan anekdot-jitu. Praktek diskrit tingkat seperti mungkin lebih mudah dikelola
daripada mencoba untuk memperoleh sistem kompleks dari pilihan dalam satu pe
rgi.