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Summary
v Introduction
v Purpose
v Significance
v Types
v Requisites
v Process
v Steps
v Layout
v Mechanics
v Precautions 2
INTRODUCTION
Means of communication
Serve as record
Legal requirements
Measure Performance
Control
4
SIGNIFICANCE
5
TYPES
6
TECHNICAL REPORT
Method employed
Assumptions made
Presentation of findings
› Advantages
› Disadvantages
Supporting Data
7
POPULAR REPORT
Simple
Attractive
Use of
› Charts
› Diagrams
Practicalaspect
Policy implication
8
OUTLINE OF REPORT
TECHNICAL POPULAR
› Summary of › Findings and
results their
› Nature of study implications
› Methods › Recommendatio
employed ns of action
› Data › Objective of
study
› Analysis of data
› Methods
› Presentation of employed
findings
› Results
› Conclusion
› Appendices
› Bibliography
› Appendix 9
Summary
v Introduction
v Purpose
v Significance
v Types
v Requisites
v Process
v Steps
v Layout
v Mechanics
v Precautions 10
REQUIREMENTS
12
STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Logical analysis of subject matter
Preparation of final outline
Preparation of final draft
Rewriting and polishing of rough
draft
Preparation of final bibliography
Writing the draft
13
LAYOUT OF REPORT
14
MECHANICS
Long / Short
Interesting
Objective style
Charts and Diagrams with summary
Appropriate layout
Avoid mistakes
Logical analysis
Disclose methods employed, and
techniques adopted
Confidence and constraints experienced
16
Summary
v Introduction
v Purpose
v Significance
v Types
v Requisites
v Process
v Steps
v Layout
v Mechanics
v Precautions 17
DIAGRAMS
simple explanatory drawing:
a simple drawing showing the basic
shape, layout, or workings of
something.
18
SIGNIFICANCE
Birds eye view
Active create interest
Great memorizing effect
Facilitate comparison of data
19
RULES TO MAKE DIAGRAM
Title
Proportion between width and height
Selection of Scale
Footnotes
Index
Neatness and cleanliness
Simplicity
20
TYPES
1D/Bar Diagrams
› Simple bar diagram
› Sub-divided bar diagram
› Multiple bar diagram
› Percentage bar diagram
› Deviation bars
› Broken bars
2D
› Rectangles
› Squares
› Circles
› Pie Diagrams
3D
Pictographs and Cartograms 21
SIMPLE BAR DIAGRAM
22
SUB-DIVIDED BAR DIAGRAM
23
MULTIPLE BAR DIAGRAM
24
PERCENTAGE BAR DIAGRAM
25
DEVIATION BARS
26
BROKEN BARS
27
RECTANGLES
28
SQUARES
29
CIRCLES
30
PIE DIAGRAM
31
PICTOGRAPHS
32
CARTOGRAPHS
33
GRAPHS
Diagram showing relationships
between varying quantities:
a diagram used to indicate
relationships between two or more
variable quantities. The quantities are
usually measured along two axes set at
right angles to each other. A graph may
be in different forms, e.g. of a line
joining points plotted between
coordinates, or a series of parallel bars
or boxes.
34
TECHNIQUE TO CONSTRUCT
Y (ordinate)
QUADRANT II +3 QUADRANT I
X -ve +2 X +ve
Y +ve Y +ve
+1 (abscissa)
X’ -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 X
40
TWO/MORE VARIABLE
GRAPH
Used when unit of measurement is same and
facilitates comparison
41
TWO SCALE GRAPH
Two variables are expressed in two different
units on common time and facilitate
comparison
42
RANGE CHART
Range of variations (minimum and maximum
values of a variable)
Plot two curves representing highest and lowest
values and the gap between them is the
range of variations.
43
BAND CHART
Shows total for successive time periods broken
up into sub totals for each component parts of
the total
44
RATIO CHART
Made by taking logarithms of various values
45
MEANING OF CURVES ON
RATIO CHART
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De
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% Increasing
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C g%
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In c
Inc
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Co sin
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%
Dec
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rate Decreasing
sing
%r
ate
46
GRAPHS OF FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
47
HISTOGRAM
49
FREQUENCY POLYGON
Graph of frequency distribution
2 ways to construct
› Using histogram
› Taking mid points
Comparisons can be made by plotting
several distributions
50
Example
51
SMOOTHED FREQUENCY
POLYGON
Free hand curve is drawn
Objective – eliminate accidental
variations present data
Curve should begin and end at the
base line
May be extended to mid points of the
class intervals just outside the
histogram
Sudden turns to be avoided
52
Example
53
OGIVES
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EXA th
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MPL n
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55
LIMITATIONS OF
DIAGRAMS & GRAPHS
Present approximate value
Limited amount of information
Explain only quantitative facts
Can be misinterpreted
56
CONCLUSION
57
STANDARDS
Paper
› White, 8½’’ by 11’’
› Use one side of paper
› For hand written use ruled paper and blue/black
ink
Margins
› 1’’ at top, bottom, left, right
Paging
› Page numbers in upper right corner
› omit page number on title page
Title
› Centre 3’’ from top in all CAPS
› Centre your name beneath the title
› Title page – title, name, course, teacher, date
58
STANDARDS
Indenting
› Indent 1’’ for each new paragraph
› Indent 1½’’ for quotations
Text
› Double space body text
› Single space for quotations
› Standard 12 point font
Quoting
› Quotation marks for direct quotations
› No quotation marks for block quotations
Proof Reading
› Use caret (^) to show point of insertion
› Use slanted line (/) for canceling single letter
› Use single horizontal line to delete a word/phrase
59
Summary
v Introduction
v Purpose
v Significance
v Types
v Requisites
v Process
v Steps
v Layout
v Mechanics
v Precautions 60
61