CE 351

Engineering Fluid Mechanics

CHAPTER 2
Fluid Properties
Prof. Majed Abu-Zreig

Introduction
Field of Fluid Mechanics can be divided into 3
branches:
Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest
Kinematics: deals with velocities and
streamlines w/o considering forces or energy
Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations between
velocities and accelerations and forces exerted
by or upon fluids in motion

Introcont
Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many
areas of engineering and science. Examples are:
Biomechanics
Blood

flow through arteries

Flow of cerebral fluid

Meteorology and Ocean Engineering

Movements

of air currents and water currents

Chemical Engineering
Design

of chemical processing equipment

Introcont

Mechanical Engineering
Design

of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning

equipment, pollution-control equipment, etc.

Civil Engineering
Transport

of river sediments
Pollution of air and water
Design of piping systems
Flood control systems

Dimensions and Units

Before going into details of fluid
mechanics, we stress importance of units
In U.S, two primary sets of units are used:

1.

SI (Systeme International) units

2. English units

Unit Table
Quantity

SI Unit

English Unit

Length (L)

Meter (m)

Foot (ft)

Mass (m)

Kilogram (kg)

Slug (slug) =
lb*sec2/ft

Time (T)

Second (s)

Second (sec)

Temperature ( ) Celcius (oC)

Farenheit (oF)

Force

Pound (lb)

Newton
(N)=kg*m/s2

Dimensions and Units cont

1 Newton Force required to accelerate a
1 kg of mass to 1 m/s2
1 slug is the mass that accelerates at 1
ft/s2 when acted upon by a force of 1 lb
To remember units of a Newton use F=ma
(Newtons 2nd Law)

[F]

= [m][a]= kg*m/s2 = N

More on Dimensions
To remember units of a slug also use
F=ma => m = F / a
[m] = [F] / [a] = lb / (ft / sec2) = lb*sec2 / ft

1 lb is the force of gravity acting on (or

weight of ) a platinum standard whose
mass is 0.45359243 kg

Weight and Newtons Law of Gravitation

Weight
Gravitational

attraction force between two bodies

Newtons Law of Gravitation

F = G m1m2/ r2
G

- universal constant of gravitation

m1, m2 - mass of body 1 and body 2, respectively
r - distance between centers of the two masses
F - force of attraction

Weight

m2 - mass of an object on earths surface

m1 - mass of earth

r - distance between center of two masses

r1 - radius of earth

r2 - radius of mass on earths surface

r2 << r1, therefore r = r1+r2 ~ r1

Thus, F = m2 * (G * m1 / r2)

Weight

Weight (W) of object (with mass m 2) on surface of earth

(with mass m1) is defined as
W = m2g ; g =(Gm1/r2) gravitational acceleration
g = 9.81 m/s2 in SI units
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 in English units

See back of front cover of textbook for conversion tables

between SI and English units

 Shear stress and pressure

Fx

A
Fz
p
A

( s h e a r s tr e s s )

( n o r m a l s tr e s s ( p r e s s u r e ))

Shear stress and pressure at a point

Fx

lim A 0

Fz
p

lim A 0

 Units of stress (shear stress and pressure)

[F ]
N
2 P a ( P a s c a l ) in S I u n its
[A] m
[F ]
lb
2 p s i ( p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e in c h ) in E n g lis h u n its
[ A ] in
[F ]
lb

2 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e fo o t ( E n g lis h u n its )
[A]
ft

Properties of Fluids Cont

Fluids are either liquids or gases

Liquid: A state of matter in which the molecules
are relatively free to change their positions with
respect to each other but restricted by cohesive
forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume
Gas: a state of matter in which the molecules
are practically unrestricted by cohesive forces. A
gas has neither definite shape nor volume.

More on properties of fluids

Fluids considered in this course move

under the action of a shear stress, no
matter how small that shear stress may be
(unlike solids)

Definition of a Fluid
When a shear stress is applied:

Fluids continuously deform

Solids deform or bend

Continuum view of Fluids

Convenient to assume fluids are continuously distributed

throughout the region of interest. That is, the fluid is
treated as a continuum
This continuum model allows us to not have to deal with
molecular interactions directly. We will account for such
interactions indirectly via viscosity
A good way to determine if the continuum model is
acceptable is to compare a characteristic length ( L ) of the
flow region with the mean free path of molecules,
If L , continuum model is valid

Density and specific weight

Density (mass per unit volume):

Units of density:

m

V

[m ]
kg
[]
3
[V ] m

Specific weight (weight per unit volume):

(in S I u n its )

Units of specific weight:

kg m
N
[ ] [ ][ g ] 3 2 3
m s
m

(in S I u n its )

Specific Gravity of Liquid (S)

liquid liquid g liquid
S

water water g water

See appendix A of textbook for specific

gravities of various liquids with respect to
water at 60 oF

Viscosity ( )

Viscosity can be thought as the internal stickiness of a fluid

Representative of internal friction in fluids
Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion
and momentum interchange between molecules.
Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:

In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e.

cohesion decreases with increasing temperature)
In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e.
molecular interchange between layers increases with temperature
setting up strong internal shear)

More on Viscosity

Viscosity is important, for example,

in

determining amount of fluids that can be

transported in a pipeline during a specific
period of time
determining energy losses associated with
transport of fluids in ducts, channels and
pipes

No slip condition
Because of viscosity, at boundaries (walls)
particles of fluid adhere to the walls, and
so the fluid velocity is zero relative to the
wall
Viscosity and associated shear stress may
be explained via the following: flow
between no-slip parallel plates.

Some Simple Flows

Flow between a fixed and a moving

plate
Fluid in contact with the plate has the same
velocity as the plate
u = x-direction component of velocity

Moving plate

u=V

V
B

u( y)

V
y
B

Fluid

Fixed plate

x
u=0

Some Simple Flows

Flow through a long, straight pipe

Fluid in contact with the pipe wall has the
same velocity as the wall
u = x-direction component of velocity
R

r
x

2
r
u (r ) V 1
R

Fluid

The velocity induced by moving top plate can be sketched as follows:

u(y 0) 0

u(y Y ) U

Y
u(y)

The velocity induced by top plate is expressed as follows:

U
u(y) y
Y

For a large class of fluids, empirically,

More specifically,

AU
F
;
Y

Shear stress induced by

is

From previous slide, note that

Thus, shear stress is

AU
F
Y

is c o e ffic ie n t o f v is c o s ity

F
U


A
Y
du U

dy
Y

du

dy

In general we may use previous expression to find shear stress at a point d u

0
inside a moving fluid. Note that if fluid is at rest this stress is zero because
dy

Newtons equation of viscosity

du
Shear stress due to viscosity at a point:
dy

- viscosity (coeff. of viscosity)

- kinematic
viscosity

fluid surface

e.g.: wind-driven flow in ocean

u(y)

( v e lo c ity p r o file )
Fixed no-slip plate

As engineers, Newtons Law of Viscosity is very useful to us as we can use it to

evaluate the shear stress (and ultimately the shear force) exerted by a moving
fluid onto the fluids boundaries.

du
a t b o u n d a ry

dy

at boundary

Note y is direction normal to the boundary

Flow between 2 plates

Force is same on top
and bottom

F1 1 A1 2 A2 F2
A1 A2

1 2

du
du

2
dy 1
dy 2

Thus, slope of velocity

profile is constant and
velocity profile is a st. line

Moving plate

u=V

V
B

u( y)

V
y
B

Fluid

Fixed plate

Force acting
ON the plate
x
u=0

Flow between 2 plates

Shear stress anywhere
between plates

du
V

dy
B

0.1 N s / m 2 ( SAE 30 @ 38o C ) (0.1 N s / m 2 )( 3 m / s )

0.02 m
V 3 m/s
15 N / m 2
B 0.02 m

Moving plate
V
B

u( y)

u=V

Shear
on fluid

V
y
B

Fixed plate

x
u=0

Example: Journal Bearing

Given

Rotation rate, = 1500 rpm

d = 6 cm
l = 40 cm
D = 6.02 cm
SGoil = 0.88
oil = 0.003 m2/s

Find: Torque and Power

required to turn the bearing
at the indicated speed.

Example: cont.

Assume: Linear velocity profile in oil film

Shear Stress

dV
( d / 2)

dy
(D d ) / 2

*
1500

(0.06 / 2)
60

(0.88 * 998 * 0.003)

124 kN / m 2
(0.0002) / 2
d d
Torque M (2 l )
2 2
0.06
0.06
(2 *124,000 *
* 0.4)
281 N m
2
2
Power P M 281*157.1 44,100 N m / s 44.1 kW

Viscometer
Coefficient of viscosity

can be measured empirically using a viscometer

Example: Flow between two concentric cylinders (viscometer) of length

- radial coordinate

Moving fluid

Fixed outer
cylinder
Rotating inner
cylinder

,T

x
z


Inner cylinder is acted upon by a torque, T T k , causing it to
rotate about point O at a constant angular velocity and
causing fluid to flow. Find an expression for T
Because

is constant,

T T k

is balanced by a resistive torque

exerted by

res
T
T

the moving fluid onto inner cylinder

T T

res

res

( k )

res

The resistive torque comes from the resistive stress

exerted by the
moving fluid onto the inner cylinder.
r e s This stress on the inner cylinder leads
to an overall resistive force F
, which induces the resistive torque about
point
res
res

y
z

O
res
T

T T
F

res

res

How do we get
cylinder, thus

If

res

res

res

res

(2 R L )

res

R
(Neglecting ends of cylinder)

? This is the stress exerted by fluid onto inner

d u

d r

a t in n e r c y lin d e r ( r R )

(gap between cylinders) is small, then

u (r)

d u
d r

R
r R

a t in n e r c y lin d e r ( r R )

r R h

R
h

Thus,

res

R

h

T T

res

T T

res

res

res

R
AR

res

(2 R L )R

R

(2 R L )R
h

R 3 2 L
T
h
Given T , R , , L , h previous result may be used to find
fluid, thus concentric cylinders may be used as a viscometer

of

Example: Rotating Disk

Assume linear velocity profile: dV/dy=V/y=r/y

Find shear stress

Surface Tension

Below surface, forces act equally

in all directions
At surface, some forces are
missing, pulls molecules down and
together, like membrane exerting
tension on the surface
If interface is curved, higher
pressure will exist on concave side
Pressure increase is balanced by
surface tension,
= 0.073 N/m (@ 20oC)

Interface

water

air

Net force
inward

No net force

Surface tension
Consider inserting a fine tube into a bucket of water:

y
x

Meniscus

- radius of tube

- Surface tension vector (acts uniformly along contact perimeter between

liquid and tube)

Adhesion of water molecules tothe tube dominates over cohesion between

water molecules giving rise to and causing fluid to rise within tube

x
W

Equilibrium in y-direction yields:

Thus

with

W

2 r cos
W

r
h
w a te r

[ s i n ( i ) c o s ( j ) ]

W W ( j )

(weight vector of water)

c o s ( 2 r ) ( j ) W ( j ) 0 j

Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian fluid

Newtonian fluid (linear relationship)

( d u e to v is c o s ity )

Non-Newtonian fluid
(non-linear relationship)
du / dy

In this course we will only deal with Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian fluids: blood, paints, toothpaste

Compressibility
All fluids compress if pressure increases resulting in an
increase in density
Compressibility is the change in volume due to a
change in pressure
A good measure of compressibility is the bulk modulus
(It is inversely proportional to compressibility)
1
p
p

( s p e c ific v o lu m e )
Ev

V / V

dp

d

p is p r e s s u r e

Compressibility
For water Ev = 2.2 GPa, E 3 2 0 , 0 0 0 p s i
1 MPa pressure change = 0.05% volume change

From above expression, increasing pressure by 1000 psi will compress

the water by only 1/320 (0.3%) of its
original volume

Thus, water may be treated as incompressible (density ( ) is constant)

In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good approximation for
certain fluids

Vapor pressure of liquids

All liquids tend to evaporate when placed in a closed container
Vaporization will terminate when equilibrium is reached between
the liquid and gaseous states of the substance in the container
i.e. # of molecules escaping liquid surface = # of incoming molecules

Under this equilibrium we call the call vapor pressure the saturation
pressure

At any given temperature, if pressure on liquid surface falls below the

the saturation pressure, rapid evaporation occurs (i.e. boiling)

For a given temperature, the saturation pressure is the boiling pressure

Vapor Pressure
Vapor Press. vs. Temp.
120

Pressure at which a liquid

will boil for given temp.
Vapor pressure increases
with temperature

Increasing temperature of
water at sea level to 212 oF,
increases the vapor
pressure to 14.7 psia and
boiling occurs
Boiling can occur below 212 oF
if we lower the pressure in the
water to the vapor pressure of
that temperature

100
Vapro Pressure (kPa)

80

60

40

20

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Temperature (oC)

At 50 oF, the vapor

pressure is 0.178 psia
If you reduce the
pressure in water at this
temperature, boiling will
occur (cavitation)

70

80

90

100

Table A.2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES AT STANDARD
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND 15C (59F)

Example

Given: Natural gas

Time 1: T1=10oC, p1=100 kPa

Time 2: T2=10oC, p2=200 kPa

Find: Ratio of mass at time 2 to that at time 1

Ideal gas law (p is absolute pressure)

M V

p
V
RT

p1
V
M 1 RT
p

1
p2
M2
p2
V
RT

M 2 300 kPa

1.5
M 1 200 kPa

Example

Estimate the mass of 1 mi3 of air

in slugs and kgs
Assume air = 0.00237 slugs/ft3,
the value at sea level for standard
conditions

M airV 0.00237 * (5,280) 3

M 3.49 x108 slugs
M 3.49 x108 slugs *14.59 kg / slugs
M 5.09 x109 kg

Example

Given: Pressure of 2 MPa is

applied to a mass of water that
initially filled 1000-cm3 volume.

Find: Volume after the

pressure is applied.
Solution: E = 2.2x109 Pa
(Table A.5)

p
V / V
p
V V
Ev
Ev

2 x106 Pa
2.2 x109 Pa

0.909 cm3
V final V V
1000 0.909
V final 999.01cm3

1000cm3

Capillary Rise

Given: Water @ 20oC,

d = 1.6 mm
Find: Height of water
Solution: Sum forces in
vertical
Assume small, cos 1
F , z W 0

d cos (h)( d 2 ) 0
4
4
h
d
4 * 0.073

9790 *1.6 x10 3

h 18.6 mm

Example (2.51)

Find: Capillary rise between two

vertical glass plates 1 mm apart.
= 7.3x10-2 N/m
l is into the page
Solution:
Fvertical 0
2l hlt 0
2
h
t
2 * 7.3 x10 2

0.001* 9810
h 0.0149 m
h 14.9 mm

h
t

Examples of Surface Tension

Example

Find: The formula for the gage

pressure within a sperical
droplet of water?
Solution: Surface tension
force is reisited by the force
due to pressure on the cut
section of the drop
p (r 2 ) 2r
2
p
r

Example (2.48)

Given: Sperical bubble,

inside radius r, film thickness
t, and surface tension .
Find: Formula for pressure
in the bubble relative to that
outside.
F 0
Solution:
pr 2 2(2r ) 0
4
p
r
4 * 7.3 x10 2
p
0.004
p 73.0 Pa

Bug Problem

Cross-section
of bug leg