ORGANIZATION

OF THE BRAIN

ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION of
the NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous
System

CNS

PNS

ANS

BRAIN

CRANIAL
NERVES

SYMPATHETIC

SPINAL
CORD

SPINAL
NERVES

PARASYMPATHETIC

Central Nervous System

(CNS)

Definition:
Unpaired, bilaterally symmetrical structures
extending along the longitudinal axis of
the
midsagittal plane of the body.
Structures arising directly from the neural
tube.

Includes:
Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)

Definition:
Made up of transmission pathways
carrying information between the CNS
and external/internal environments.
Afferent (sensory) pathways:
Carry information to the CNS.
Efferent (motor) pathways:
Carry information from the CNS.

Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS)

Includes:
Cranial nerves (12 pairs).
Spinal nerves (31 pairs).

Autonomic Nervous System

(ANS)

May be considered a subdivision of the

PNS.

Entirely motor.

Innervates smooth muscle and glands

(viscera).

ANS Subdivisions

Sympathetic system (fight or flight):

Also called thoracolumbar.

Parasympathetic system (feed or breed):

Also called craniosacral.

Parts of a Neuron

Cell body:
Trophic unit
Perikaryon
Dendrites:
Receptive unit
Axon:
Conductive unit

Neuron Anatomy

Cell body
Nucleus
Large
nucleolus

Figure 7.4a
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Slide 7.9b

Neuron Anatomy
Extensions
outside the cell
body
Dendrites
conduct
impulses toward
the cell body
Axons conduct
impulses away
from the cell
body (only 1!)
Figure 7.4a
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Slide 7.10

Cell Body Definition

That part of a neuron that encloses the

nucleus and other organelles necessary
to maintain and repair the neuron.

Dendrites (Characteristics)

Branches off the cell body that carry

information to the cell body.
Usually several to many.
Relatively short.
Often branched.
Have receptors for neurotransmitters.
Conduct local potentials.

Axon Characteristics

Carries information to another neuron or

muscle cell.
Often relatively long.
Single (one per neuron).
Conducts action potential

Axon Characteristics

Ends in short branched processes called

telodendria.
May have collateral branches.
Cell membrane (= axolemma).
Cytoplasm = (axoplasm).

Axon Characteristics

Covered by neurolemma:
Made up of Schwann cells.
Often myelinated:
Myelin is formed by Schwann cells.
Note: axon is the only part of a neuron
that is ever myelinated.

General Terminology

Nucleus:
Aggregation of dendrites and nerve
cell bodies in the CNS.
Ganglion:
Aggregation of dendrites and nerve
cell bodies in the PNS.

General Terminology

White matter:
Areas of myelinated axons.
Gray matter:
Areas of unmyelinated axons, cell
bodies,
and dendrites.

Synapse

Definition:

Composite structure that allows two neurons

or a neuron and a muscle cell to talk to each
other.

Synapse Components

Presynaptic membrane:
With synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters.
Synaptic cleft:
Postsynaptic membrane:
With receptors for neurotransmitters.
Monosynaptic pathways.
Polysynaptic pathways.

Types of nerves

Afferent (sensory) pathways:

Somatic.
Visceral (splanchnic).
Efferent (motor) pathways:
Somatic.
Visceral (splanchnic).
Association neurons (interneurons).

Neuroglial Cells

Schwann cells
Astrocytes
Microglial cells
Oligodendrocytes
Ependymal cells

Schwann Cells

Derived from neural crest cells.

Myelinate axons in the PNS.

Microglial Cells

Derived from embryonic mesenchyme.

May transform into phagocytes within

CNS.

Nerve Fiber Coverings

Schwann cells
produce myelin
sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in myelin
sheath along the
axon
Figure 7.5
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Slide 7.12

Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neurons many extensions
from the cell body

Figure 7.8a

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Slide

Structural Classification of Neurons

Bipolar neurons one axon and one
dendrite

Figure 7.8b

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Slide

Structural Classification of Neurons

Unipolar neurons have a short single
process leaving the cell body

Figure 7.8c

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Slide

How Neurons Function

(Physiology)
Irritability ability to respond to stimuli
Conductivity ability to transmit an
impulse
The plasma membrane at rest is
polarized
Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
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Slide 7.17

Starting a Nerve Impulse

Depolarization a
stimulus depolarizes the
neurons membrane
A deploarized
membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
The exchange of ions
initiates an action
potential in the neuron
Figure 7.9ac
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Slide 7.18

The Action Potential

If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
The sodium-potassium pump restores
the original configuration
This action requires ATP
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Slide 7.19

Nerve Impulse Propagation

The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
Impulses travel
faster when fibers
have a myelin
sheath
Figure 7.9ce
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Slide 7.20

Continuation of the Nerve Impulse

between Neurons
Impulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
Neurotransmitter is released from a nerves
axon terminal
The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
An action potential is started in the dendrite
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Slide 7.21

How Neurons Communicate at

Synapses

Figure 7.10
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Slide 7.22

Fig.48.20

cerebrum

corpus
callosum
thalamus

hypothalamus

Pineal gland

cerebellum

pituitary
pons
spinal cord

medulla
oblongata

Cerebrum

Involved with higher brain functions.

Processes sensory information.
Initiates motor functions.
Integrates information.

Regions of the cerebrum are

specialized for different functions

The
cerebrum is
divided into
frontal,
temporal,
occipital,
and parietal
lobes.

Frontal lobe.

Contains the primary motor cortex.

Parietal lobe.

Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Fig.48.25
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Integrative Function of the Association Areas.

Much

of the cerebrum is given over to

association areas.

Areas where sensory information is integrated

and assessed and motor responses are

planned.

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The brain exhibits plasticity of function.

For

example, infants with intractable

epilepsy may have an entire cerebral
hemisphere removed.

The remaining hemisphere can provide the

function normally provided by both

hemispheres.

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FIG. 49-17

Ma
x

Hearing
words

Seeing
words

Min
Speaking
words

Generating
words

Language and Speech.

Brocas

area.

Usually located in the left hemispheres frontal lobe

Responsible for speech production.

Wernickes

area.

Usually located in the right hemispheres temporal lobe

Responsible for the comprehension of speech.

Other

speech areas are involved

generating verbs to match nouns,
grouping together related words, etc.

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Memory and Learning.

Short-term

memory stored in the frontal

lobes.
The establishment of long-term memory
involves the hippocampus.
The transfer of information from short-term to

long-term memory.
Is enhanced by repetition (remember that when you are
preparing for an exam).
Influenced by emotional states mediated by the
amygdala.
Influenced by association with previously stored
information.
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 Different

types of long-term memories are

stored in different regions of the brain.
Memorization-type memory can be rapid.
Primarily involves changes in the strength of

existing nerve connections.

Learning

slower.

of skills and procedures is

Appears to involves cellular mechanisms

similar to those involved in brain growth and

development.

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Human Consciousness.
Brain

imaging can show neural activity

associated with:

Conscious perceptual choice

Unconscious processing
Memory retrieval
Working memory.
Consciousness

appears to be a wholebrain phenomenon.

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Thalamus

Relay center for sensory tracts

from the spinal cord to the
cerebrum.
Contains centers for sensation
of pain, temperature, and touch.
Involved with emotions and
alerting or arousal mechanisms.

The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.

The

reticular activating system (RAS) of

the reticular formation.

Regulates sleep

and arousal.
Acts as a
sensory filter.

Fig.48.21
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 Sleep

and wakefulness produces patterns

of electrical activity in the brain that can
be recorded as an
electroencephalogram (EEG).

Most dreaming

occurs during
REM (rapid
eye movement)
sleep.

Fig.48.22bd
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Hypothalamus
Regulates:
autonomic control center- blood pressure,
rate and force of heart contraction, center
for emotional response and behavior
body temperature
water balance and thirst
sleep/wake cycles
appetite
sexual arousal
control of endocrine functioning:
Acts on the pituitary gland through the

Hypothalamus

Midbrain

thalamus

Cerebellar peduncles
Tectum
Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi
Substantia nigra
Red nuclei
c
Te

m
tu

Posterior

Red nucleus
Substantia nigra

Anterior

Midbrain

Contains ascending and descending

tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
Reflex center for eye muscles.
Also involved with processing visual
and auditory information (connects
head movements with visual and
auditory stimuli).

Pons

Connects the two

halves of the
cerebellum.
Regulates breathing.

Medulla Oblongata
Composed of nerve tracts
to and from the brain
(these tracts cross over
left to right and right to left)
May be regarded as an
extension of the spinal
cord
Almost all of the cranial
nerves arise from this
region

Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for
many subconscious
activities
Respiratory rate
Heart rate
Arteriole constriction
Swallowing
Hiccupping
Coughing
Sneezing

Cranial Nerves

On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fat Voracious German Viewed A Hop

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Olfactory- smell
Optic- vision
Oculomotor- 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles
Trochlear- extrinsic eye muscles
Trigeminal- sensory fibers to the face and motor fibers to
the chewing muscles
6. Abducens- controls eye muscles that turn the eye laterally
7. Facial- facial expression
8. Vestibulocochlear- hearing and balance
9. Glosopharyngeal- tongue and pharynx
10.Vagus- parasympathetic control of heart, lungs &
abdominal organs
11.Accessory- accessory part of vagus nerve, neck & throat
muscles
12.Hypoglossal- moves muscles under tongue

Cranial Nerves
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory

Hypoglossal

Protection of the Central Nervous

System
Scalp and skin
Skull and vertebral column
Meninges

Figure 7.16a
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Slide

Meninges
Dura mater
Double-layered external covering
Periosteum attached to surface of the
skull
Meningeal layer outer covering of the
brain

Folds inward in several areas

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Slide

Cerebrospinal Fluid
Similar to blood plasma composition
Formed by the choroid plexus
Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
spinal cord
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Slide 7.46

Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17a

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Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17b
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Blood Brain Barrier

Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body
Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
Useless against some substances
Fats and fat soluble molecules
Respiratory gases
Alcohol
Nicotine
Anesthesia

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Slide 7.48