Principle of Sensors

Lecture 3-a

Dr. Zulfatman, M.Eng.

Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
University of Muhammadiyah Malang

Definition
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and

responds with an electrical signal.

Fig 1.1

Level control system. A sight tube and the

operators eye form a sensor.
2

Detectable Phenomenon
Stimulus
Acoustic
Biological & Chemical
Electric

Magnetic

Quantity
Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid), Radiation,
Moisture
Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude,
phase, polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,
Permeability

Optical

Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal

Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical

Position/Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force,

Strain, Stress, Pressure, Torque, Flow, Light

The Response is an Electrical Signal

When we say electrical we

mean a signal which can be

channeled, amplified and
modified by electronic
devices:
Voltage

Current
Charge

The voltage, current or

charge may be describe by:

Amplitude

Frequency
Phase
Digital code

Any sensor is an energy converter

This conversion can be direct or it may

require transducers.
Fig 1.2

Example:

A chemical sensor may have a part which

converts the energy of a chemical reaction into

heat (transducer) and another part, a
thermopile, which converts heat into an
electrical signal.
5

Need for Sensors

Sensors are omnipresent. They

embedded in our bodies, automobiles,

airplanes, cellular telephones, radios,
chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.
Without the use of sensors, there would
be no automation !!

Choosing a Sensor

Physical Principles of Sensing

Charges, fields &

potentials
Capacitance
Magnetism
Induction
Resistance
Piezoelectric effect

Seebeck and Peltier

effects
Thermal properties of
materials
Heat transfer
Light

Types of Sensor
Direct
A sensor that can convert a non-electrical
stimulus into an electrical signal with
intermediate stages.

Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)

Indirect
A sensor that multiple conversion steps to
transform the measured signal into an
electrical signal.
A fiber-optic displacement sensor:
Current photons current

Electric Charges, Fields, & Potentials

Any charged object is subject to a force when

in the region of an electric field.

A field can be used to detect the presence of charge

or the opposite can be true and the force on a charge

determined to detect a field.

f
E
q0

q
E
4 0 r 2
10

Other Geometries

E
2 0 r
=charge/unit length

E
2 0

The field is strongest at

areas of highest
curvature

=charge/unit area

11

Electric Dipole
Dipoles are found in crystalline materials and form a

foundation for piezoelectric and pyroelectric detectors.

The dipole is a combination of 2 opposite charges placed a

apart. The electric field is the vector sum to the two fields.

qa
p

4 0 r 3 8 0 r 3

p represents the dipole moment

In the presence of an E
field the dipole will
develop a torque

pE
12

Capacitance
Two isolated conductive objects of arbitrary shape

which can hold an electric charge is called a

capacitor.
An E field is developed between the two conductors.

q 0 A
C
V
d

13

Capacitor as Displacement Sensor

If the inner conductor can be moved in and out,

the measured capacitance will be a function of l.

2 0l
C
ln b / a

14

Dielectric Constant
The material between the plates of the capacitor can also be

used to sense changes in the environment.

When vacuum (or air) is replaced by another material, the

capacitance increases by a factor of , known as the dielectric

constant of the material
The increase in C is due to the polarization of the molecules of
the material used as an insulator.

q 0 A
C
V
d

15

Example A Water Level Sensor

The total capacitance of the coaxial sensor shown below is

the capacitance of the water-free portion plus the

capacitance of the water-filled portion. As the level of the
water changes, the total capacitance changes.

Ch C free C filled
Ch

2 0
H h 1
ln b / a

16

Magnetism
There are two methods of generating a magnetic

field:
Permanent magnets (magnetic materials).
The magnetic field generated by a current.
Force is generated
on a test magnet
in the field of
magnetic
materials.

A compass needle
will respond to the
magnetic field
generated by a
current.

Magnetic field, B
flux is the field density, B

17

Sources of Magnetic Field

Electric current sets a
circular magnetic field
around a conductor.

Moving electron sets

a field, superposition
of field vectors
results in a
combined magnetic
field of a permanent
magnet.
Magnets are useful for fabricating magnetic sensors for the detection
of motion, displacement, and position.
18

Induction
A phenomenon related to magnetism is

induction, the generation of voltage from a

changing magnetic field.
If the coil has no magnetic core, the flux is proportional

to current and the voltage proportional to di/dt.

v

d n B
dLi
di

L
dt
dt
dt

19

Resistance
If we apply a battery across two points of a piece of

material, an E field will be set up where E=V/l

V
i
E V
1
Va

j l i / a li
Va l
l
R

il a
a
R

The tendency of the material to resist the flow of electrons is

called its resistivity, , and we say that the material has a
particular electrical resistance, R.

20

Sensitivity of Resistance
To Temperature:
Specific resistivity of
tungsten as a function of
temperature.

0 1 t t0
is the temperature
coefficient of resistivity.

21

Application for Temperature Indication using a

Laminate of Materials with Two Different s.

22

To Strain:

Strain changes the

geometry of a conductor
and its resistance.

F
dl
E Ee
a
l

Stress = Youngs Modulus x strain

(1)
( 2)
(3)
( 4)

2
l
v

dR

Se l
dl
v

l
l
dl
dl

dR S e ldl S e
dl S e R S e
v
a l
a
l
l

dR
R R1
See 2
R
R1

Since length is changing the factor of 2 in the second equation

becomes a variable which depends on the material.
23

To Moisture:

For the hygristor, the resistance of the polymer changes with the
absorption of water molecules.

24

The Piezoelectric Effect

The piezoelectric effect is the generation of

electric charge by a crystalline material upon

subjecting it to stress.

25

Piezoelectric Sensor
Because a crystal with deposited
electrodes forms a capacitor the voltage
developed can be expressed as:

Qx d x
V

Fx
C
C
Where dx is the piezoelectric coefficient in
the x direction and Fx is the applied force
in the x direction.
Piezoelectric crystals are
direct converters of
mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

Laminated 2-layer piezoelectric sensor

26

Pyroelectric Effect
PQ

dPs
dT

PQ is the pyroelectric charge

coefficient and Ps is related to the
charge developed on the
electrodes when the sensor is
subjected to heat flow.

If the sensor has the capacitor

form:
Q PQ AT

Pyroelectric materials are

crystals capable of generating
an electrical charge in response
to heat flow.

Q r 0 A

V
h

then
V

P AT
Q PQ AT
h

Q
PQ
T
C
C
r 0 A / h
r 0

27

The material loses its usefulness at

the Curie Temp the point at which
polarization disappears.

The electric charge reaches its peak

nearly instantaneously and then decays
with a thermal time constant, T

28

Seebeck and Peltier Effects

The Seebeck effect is a direct conversion of

thermal energy into electric energy.

The varying temperature
along the bar is a source of
electromotive force
(voltage) and current will
flow.
This is the principle behind
the thermocouple.

29

Thermoelectric Loops
V AB A B T

If a loop of conductor has points

at 2 different temperatures,
current flows. But if there is a
single conductor no measurable
net current flows.

If a loop of conductor has points at 2

different temperatures, again current flows.
If the loop is composed of 2 different
conductors, measurable net current flows
due to a difference in the Seebeck
coefficients.

A and B are the Seebeck coefficients

30

Output Voltage from Standard Thermocouples

31

TYPES MATERIALS TEMPERATURE RANGES

Thermocouple Type

Names of Materials

Useful Application Range

B
C
E
J
K
N
R
S
T

Platinum30% Rhodium (+)

Platinum 6% Rhodium (-)

2500 -3100F
1370-1700C

W5Re Tungsten 5% Rhenium (+)

W26Re Tungsten 26% Rhenium (-)

3000-4200F
1650-2315C

Chromel (+)
Constantan (-)

200-1650F
95-900C

Iron (+)
Constantan (-)

200-1400F
95-760C

Chromel (+)
Alumel (-)

200-2300F
95-1260C

Nicrosil (+)
Nisil (-)

1200-2300F
650-1260C

Platinum 13% Rhodium (+)

Platinum (-)

1600-2640F
870-1450C

Platinum 10% Rhodium (+)

Platinum (-)

1800-2640F
980-1450C

Copper (+)
Constantan (-)

-330-660F
-200-350C

32

The Peltier Effect

The Peltier effect concerns the reversible absorption of heat which

usually takes place when an electric current crosses a junction
between 2 dissimilar metals.
It can produce heat or cold depending on the direction of electric
current through the junction.

33

Light (Electromagnetic Radiation)

c
E h h

E is the energy of the

radiation
c = c x 108 m/s
h = 6.63 x 10-23 J-s
is the wavelength of the
radiation
UV and visible photons have relatively high energy levels and are
easily detected. In the far IR the energies become very small and
thermal detectors are used.

34

Conclusions
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and

responds with an electrical signal.

The final stage of any sensor is dependent upon
the electrical properties of the sensor materials.
The materials introduced today are used in the
design and fabrication of many different types of
sensors.

35

Sensors Technology
Lecture 3-b

Dr. Zulfatman, M.Eng.

Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
University of Muhammadiyah Malang

Categorization of Sensor
Classification based on physical phenomena
Mechanical: strain gage, displacement (LVDT), velocity

(laser vibrometer), accelerometer, tilt meter, viscometer,

pressure, etc.
Thermal: thermal couple
Optical: camera, infrared sensor
Others

Classification based on measuring mechanism

Resistance sensing, capacitance sensing, inductance

sensing, piezoelectricity, etc.

Materials capable of converting of one form of

energy to another are at the heart of many

sensors.

Invention of new materials, e.g., smart materials,

would permit the design of new types of sensors.

Paradigm of Sensing System

Design

Zhang & Aktan, 2005

Instrumentation Considerations
Sensor technology;
Sensor data collection topologies;
Data communication;
Power supply;
Data synchronization;
Environmental parameters and

influence;
Remote data analysis.

Measurement
Physical
phenomenon

Sensor System

Measurement
Output

Measurement output:
interaction between a sensor and the environment
surrounding the sensor
compound response of multiple inputs
Measurement errors:
System errors: imperfect design of the measurement
setup and the approximation, can be corrected by
calibration
Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables.
Can be reduced by averaging.

Sensors
Definition: a device for sensing a physical
variable of a physical system or an environment
Classification of Sensors
Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain,
rotation velocity, acceleration, pressure,
force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage,
current, frequency phase; visual/images, light;
magnetism.
Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value

Specifications of Sensor
Accuracy: error between the result of a

measurement and the true value being

measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of
measure that a device can make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change
in the output signal to a small change in
input physical signal. Slope of the inputoutput fit line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of
the sensor to output the same value for
the same input over a number of trials

Accuracy vs. Resolution

True value

measurement

Accuracy vs. Precision

Precision
without
accuracy

Accuracy
without
precision

Precision
and accuracy

Specifications of Sensor
Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable

input amplitude to minimum input amplitude, i.e.

D.R. = 20 log (Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.) dB
Linearity: the deviation of the output from a bestfit straight line for a given range of the sensor
Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The
relationship between physical input signal and
electrical output signal, which may constitute a
complete description of the sensor characteristics.
Bandwidth: the frequency range between the
lower and upper cutoff frequencies, within which the
sensor transfer function is constant gain or linear.
Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that
causes random fluctuation in the output value

Attributes of Sensors
Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make

sensors function, such as electro-optics, electromagnetic,

piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet.
Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of
physical variables.
Size: The physical volume of sensors.
Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time;
continuous or discrete/analog or digital.
Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and
decision-making.
Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating
vs. just receiving signals.
Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the
disturbance in environment.
Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough
for its operation conditions

Strain Gauges
Foil strain gauge
Least expensive
Widely used
Not suitable for long distance
Electromagnetic Interference
Sensitive to moisture & humidity
Vibration wire strain gauge
Determine strain from freq. of AC signal
Bulky
Fiber optic gauge
Immune to EM and electrostatic noise
Compact size
High cost
Fragile

Strain Sensing
Resistive Foil Strain Gage

Technology well developed; Low cost

High response speed & broad frequency

bandwidth
A wide assortment of foil strain gages
commercially available
Subject to electromagnetic (EM) noise,
interference, offset drift in signal.
Long-term performance of adhesives
used for bonding strain gages is
questionable

Vibrating wire strain gages can NOT

be used for dynamic application

because of their low response
speed.
Optical fiber strain sensor

Strain Sensing
Piezoelectric Strain Sensor
Piezoelectric ceramic-based or Piezoelectric polymer-based

(e.g., PVDF)
Very high resolution (able to measure nanostrain)
Excellent performance in ultrasonic frequency range, very high
frequency bandwidth; therefore very popular in ultrasonic
applications, such as measuring signals due to surface wave
propagation
When used for measuring plane strain, can not distinguish the
strain in X, Y direction
Piezoelectric ceramic is a brittle material (can not measure
large deformation)

Courtesy of PCB
Piezotronics

Acceleration Sensing
Piezoelectric accelerometer
Nonzero lower cutoff frequency (0.1 1 Hz for

5%)
Light, compact size (miniature accelerometer
weighing 0.7 g is available)
Measurement range up to +/- 500 g
Less expensive than capacitive accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 5 100 mv/g
Broad frequency bandwidth (typically 0.2 5 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 150 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Acceleration Sensing
Capacitive accelerometer

Good performance over low frequency range, can

measure gravity!
Heavier (~ 100 g) and bigger size than piezoelectric
accelerometer
Measurement range up to +/- 200 g
More expensive than piezoelectric accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 10 1000 mV/g
Frequency bandwidth typically from 0 to 800 Hz
Operating temperature: -65 120 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Accelerometer

Force Sensing
Metal foil strain-gage based (load cell)
Good in low frequency response
High load rating
Resolution lower than piezoelectricitybased
Rugged, typically big size, heavy weight

Courtesy of Davidson
Measurement

Force Sensing
Piezoelectricity based (force sensor)
lower cutoff frequency at 0.01 Hz

can NOT be used for static load measurement

Good in high frequency

High resolution
Limited operating temperature (can not be used for

high temperature applications)

Compact size, light

Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Displacement Sensing
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential

Transformer):

Inductance-based ctromechanical

sensor
Infinite resolution

limited by external electronics

Limited frequency bandwidth (250 Hz

typical for DC-LVDT, 500 Hz for ACLVDT)

No contact between the moving core
and coil structure

no friction, no wear, very long operating

lifetime

Accuracy limited mostly by linearity

0.1%-1% typical
Models with strokes from mms to 1 m

available

Photo courtesy of MSI

Displacement Sensing
Linear Potentiometer
Resolution (infinite), depends on?
High frequency bandwidth (> 10 kHz)
Fast response speed
Velocity (up to 2.5 m/s)
Photo courtesy of Duncan
Electronics
Low cost
Finite operating life (2 million cycles) due to
contact wear
Accuracy: +/- 0.01 % - 3 % FSO
Operating temperature: -55 ~ 125 C

Displacement Transducer
Magnetostrictive Linear Displacement Transducer
Exceptional performance for long stroke position

measurement up to 3 m
Operation is based on accurately measuring the distance
from a predetermined point to a magnetic field produced
by a movable permanent magnet.
Repeatability up to 0.002% of the measurement range.
Resolution up to 0.002% of full scale range (FSR)
Relatively low frequency bandwidth (-3dB at 100 Hz)
Very expensive
Operating temperature: 0 70 C

Photo courtesy of Schaevitz

Displacement Sensing
Differential Variable Reluctance Transducers
Relatively short stroke
High resolution
Non-contact between the measured object and sensor
Type of Construction

Standard tubular

Fixing Mode

by 8mm diameter

Total Measuring Range

2(+/-1)mm

Pneumatic Retraction

No

Repeatability

0.1um

Operating Temperature Limits

-10 to +65 degrees C

Courtesy of Microstrain, Inc.

Velocity Sensing
Scanning Laser Vibrometry
No physical contact with the test object; facilitate

remote, mass-loading-free vibration measurements on

targets
measuring velocity (translational or angular)
automated scanning measurements with fast scanning
speed
However, very expensive (> $120K)

Photo courtesy of Bruel & Kjaer

Photo courtesy of Polytec

Laser Vibrometry
References
Structural health monitoring using scanning laser

vibrometry, by L. Mallet, Smart Materials &

Structures, vol. 13, 2004, pg. 261
the technical note entitled Principle of
Vibrometry from Polytec

Shock (high-G) Sensing

Shock Pressure Sensor

Measurement range up to 69 MPa (10

ksi)
High response speed (rise time < 2
sec.)
High frequency bandwidth (resonant
frequency up to > 500 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 to 130 C
Light (typically weighs ~ 10 g)

Shock Accelerometer

Measurement range up to +/- 70,000 g

Frequency bandwidth typically from 0.5

30 kHz at -3 dB
Operating temperature: -40 to 80 C
Light (weighs ~ 5 g)

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Angular Motion Sensing (Tilt

Meter)
Inertial Gyroscope (e.g., http://www.xbow.com)
used to measure angular rates and X, Y, and Z acceleration.

Tilt Sensor/Inclinometer (e.g., http://www.microstrain.com)

Tilt sensors and inclinometers generate an artificial horizon

and measure angular tilt with respect to this horizon.

Rotary Position Sensor (e.g., http://www.msiusa.com)

includes potentiometers and a variety of magnetic and

capacitive technologies. Sensors are designed for angular

displacement less than one turn or for multi-turn
displacement.

Photo courtesy of MSI and Crossbow

Light Sensor
Light sensors are used

in cameras, infrared
detectors, and ambient
lighting applications
Sensor is composed of

photoconductor such
as a photoresistor,
photodiode, or
phototransistor

Magnetic Field Sensor

Magnetic Field

sensors are used

for power steering,
security, and
current
measurements on
transmission lines

Hall voltage is

proportional to
magnetic field

VH

I B
n q t

Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic sensors are

used for position

measurements
Sound waves emitted
are in the range of 213 MHz
Sound Navigation And
Ranging (SONAR)
Radio Dection And
Ranging (RADAR)
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES !!

Photogate
Photogates are used

in counting
applications (e.g.
finding period of
period motion)

Infrared transmitter

and receiver at
opposite ends of the
sensor

Time at which light

is broken is recorded

CO2 Gas Sensor

CO2 sensor measures

gaseous CO2 levels in

an environment
Measures CO2 levels in

the range of 0-5000

ppm
Monitors how much

infrared radiation is
absorbed by CO2
molecules

MEMS Technology
What is MEMS?
Acronym for Microelectromechanical Systems
MEMS is the name given to the practice of making and

combining miniaturized mechanical and electrical

components. K. Gabriel, SciAm, Sept 1995.
Synonym to:
Micromachines (in Japan)
Microsystems technology (in Europe)
Leverage on existing IC-based fabrication techniques (but
now extend to other non IC techniques)
Potential for low cost through batch fabrication
Thousands of MEMS devices (scale from ~ 0.2 m to 1
mm) could be made simultaneously on a single silicon
wafer

MEMS Technology
Co-location of sensing,

computing, actuating,
control, communication &
power on a small chip-size
device
High spatial functionality and
fast response speed
Very high precision in

manufacture
miniaturized components
improve response speed and
reduce power consumption

MEMS Fabrication
Technique

Courtesy of A.P. Pisano,

DARPA

Distinctive Features of MEMS

Devices
Miniaturization
micromachines (sensors and actuators) can handle

microobjects and move freely in small spaces

Multiplicity
cooperative work from many small micromachines

may be best way to perform a large task

inexpensive to make many machines in parallel

Microelectronics
integrate microelectronic control devices with

sensors and actuators

Fujita, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 86, No 8

MEMS Accelerometer
Capacitive MEMS

accelerometer

High precision dual axis

accelerometer with signal

conditioned voltage
outputs, all on a single
monolithic IC
Sensitivity from 20 to 1000
mV/g
High accuracy
High temperature stability
Low power (less than 700
uA typical)
5 mm x 5 mm x 2 mm LCC
package
Low cost ($5 ~ $14/pc. in
Yr. 2004)

Courtesy of Analog Devices,

Inc.

MEMS Accelerometer
Piezoresistive MEMS accelerometer
Operating Principle: a proof mass attached to a silicon

housing through a short flexural element. The

implantation of a piezoresistive material on the upper
surface of the flexural element. The strain experienced
by a piezoresistive material causes a position change
of its internal atoms, resulting in the change of its
electrical resistance
low-noise property at high frequencies

Courtesy of JP Lynch, U Mich.

MEMS Dust
MEMS dust here has the same scale as a

single dandelion seed - something so small

and light that it literally floats in the air.

Source: Distributed MEMS: New Challenges for

Computation, by
A.A. BERLIN and K.J. GABRIEL, IEEE Comp. Sci. Eng.,
1997