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Activity
chapter 9
Structural Deformation
Rocks deform when
stresses placed upon
them exceed the rock
strength
Brittle deformation
(e.g. fractures)
ductile deformation
(e.g. folds)
Driving Forces
Plate tectonics plate convergence and ridge
spreading
Deep burial of sediments
Forceful intrusion of magma into the crust
Meteorite impacts
Evidence of Crustal
Deformation
Folding of strata
Faulting of strata
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures
Evidence of Crustal
Deformation
Folding of strata
Faulting of strata
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures
Evidence of Crustal
Deformation
Folding of strata
Faulting of strata
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures
Evidence of Crustal
Deformation
Folding of strata
Faulting of strata
Tilting of strata
Joints and fractures
Applications of structural
geology
Geological structures
Fundamental Structures
Three fundamental types of geologic
structures:
bed contacts
primary structures - produced during
deposition
or emplacement of rock body
secondary structures - produced by
deformation
and other process after rock is emplaced
Bed Contacts
Boundaries which separate one rock
unit from another
two types:
1. Normal conformable contacts
2. Unconformable contacts
(unconformities)
Unconformable Contacts
Erosion surfaces representing a
significant break in deposition (and
geologic time)
angular unconformity
disconformity
non-conformity
Angular Unconformity
Bedding contact which discordantly cuts
across older strata
discordance means strata are at an angle to
each other
commonly contact is erosion surface
Formation of an angular
unconformity
Disconformity
Nonconformity
Sedimentary strata overlying igneous or
metamorphic rocks across a sharp contact
example: Precambrian-Paleozoic contact in Ontario
represents a erosional hiatus of about 500 ma
Structural Relations
The structural relations between bed
contacts are important in
determining:
Principle of Original
Horizontality
Sedimentary rocks are deposited as essentially
horizontal layers
exception is cross-bedding (e.g. delta foresets)
dipping sedimentary strata implies tectonic uplift and
tilting or folding of strata
Principle of Cross-cutting
Igneous intrusions and faults are
younger than the rocks that they
cross-cut
Cross-cutting Relations
Often several cross-cutting
relationships are present
how many events in this outcrop?
Principle of Inclusion
Fragments of a rock included within a
host rock are always older than the
host
Fundamental Structures
Three fundamental types of
structures:
bed contacts
primary structures
secondary structures
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Structures acquired during deposition of
sedimentary rock unit
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Cross-bedding - inclined stratification
recording migration of sand ripples or
dunes
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Ripples - undulating bedforms produced by
unidirectional or oscillating (wave) currents
Ripple
marks
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Graded bedding - progressive decrease in
grain size upward in bed
indicator of upwards direction in deposit
common feature of turbidites
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Mud cracks - cracks produced by
dessication of clays/silts during
subaerial exposure
Primary Sedimentary
Structures
Sole marks - erosional grooves and marks
formed by scouring of bed by unidirectional
flows
good indicators of current flow direction
Importance of Primary
Structures
1. Paleocurrents - determine paleoflow directions
2. Origin mode of deposition, environments
3. Way-up - useful indicators of the direction of
younger beds in stratigraphic sequence
4. Dating - allow relative ages of rocks to be
determined based on position, cross-cutting
relations and inclusions
5. Strain indicators - deformation of primary
structures allows estimates of rock strain
Secondary Structures
Secondary structures - deformation
structures
produced by tectonic forces and other
stresses in crust
Principle types:
fractures/joints
faults/shear zones
folds
cleavage/foliation/lineation
Faults
Faults - fracture surfaces with appreciable
displacement of strata
single fault plane
fault zone - set of associated shear fractures
shear zone - zone of ductile shearing
Shear Zones
Shear zone - zone of deformed rocks that are more
highly strained than surrounding rocks
common in mid- to lower levels of crust
shear deformation can be brittle or ductile
Fault Terminology
Hanging wall block- fault block toward which
the fault dips
Footwall block - fault block on underside of
fault
Fault plane fault surface
Fault Slip
Slip is the fault displacement described
by:
direction of slip
sense of slip
magnitude of slip
Fault Types
Dip-slip faults - slip is parallel to the
fault dip direction
normal
reverse
thrust
Fault Types
Normal fault - footwall block dispaced
up
Fault Types
Reverse (thrust) fault - footwall block
displaced down
Fault Types
Strike-slip fault slip is horizontal,
parallel with strike of the fault plane
right-handed (dextral)
left-handed (sinistral)
Fault Types
Oblique slip Combination of dip- and
strike-slip motion
dextral-normal
dextral-reverse
sinistral-normal
sinistral-reverse
Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
Faults
What type of faults are shown here?
Folds
Folds warping of strata produced by
compressive deformation
range in scale from microscopic features
to regional-scale domes and basins
indicators of compression and shortening
Fold Terminology
Hinge (Axial) plane - imaginary plane bisecting fold
limbs
Hinge line - trace of axial plane on fold crest
Plunge - angle of dip of hinge line
plunging
fold axis
Fold Terminology
Anticline - convex in direction of
youngest beds
Syncline - convex in direction of oldest
beds
Antiform - convex upward fold
(stratigraphy unknown)
Synform - concave upward fold
Anticline / Antiform?
Syncline
Synform?
Fold Terminology
Synformal Anticline - overturned anticline
Antiformal Syncline - overturned syncline
Fold Terminology
Monocline - step-like bend in strata
Lineations
Lineation - sub-parallel to parallel alignment of
elongate linear fabric elements in a rock body
e.g. slickenlines and grooves on fault plane surface
Structural analysis
Involves three steps
1. Descriptive or geometric analysis
2. Kinematic analysis
3. Dynamic analysis
Geometrical analysis
Measurement of the 3-dimentional
orientation and geometry of geological
structures
simplified into:
lines
planes
Orientation of linear
structures
LINES
Trend azimuth direction measured clockwise
from north 360
Plunge angle of inclination of line measured from
the horizontal (0 - 90)
Examples of linear
structures
Primary flute casts, grooves, glacial striae
Secondary slickenlines, mineral lineations
sole marks
Examples of linear
structures
Primary flute casts, grooves, glacial striae
Secondary slickenlines, mineral lineations
Orientation of Linear
Structures
linear structures on an other planar
surface:
pitch angle
angle from horizontal measured within
the plane
Striations
on a fault
plane
Pitch
angle
Examples of Planar
Structures
Bedding planes most common
primary depositional surface
erosional surface
Examples of Planar
Structures
Foliation cleavage planes produced by
metamorphism
common in slates and phyllites
foliated phyllite
Examples of Planar
Structures
Joint planes planar fracture
surfaces caused by brittle failure
Examples of Planar
Structures
Fold axial plane - imaginary plane
bisecting limbs of fold
Orientation of Planar
Structures
The attitude of a plane can be
established from any two lines
contained in the plane, provided they
are not parallel
Orientation of Planar
Structures
Strike azimuth direction of a
horizontal line in a plane
Dip angle of inclination of line measured
from the horizontal (0 - 90)
Orientation of Planar
Structures
Appearent dip
dip measured along
a line other than
90 to strike
apparent dip will
always be less than
the true dip angle
Measurement of orientation
Strike (plane)
Trend (line)
azimuth orientation measured with a compass
Measurement of orientation
Strike (plane)
Trend (line)
azimuth orientation
measured with a compass
Dip (plane)
Plunge (line)
inclination measured using
an inclinometer
Measurement of Strike
Direction
Right hand rule???
When your thumb (on your right hand)
is pointing in the direction of strike
your fingers are pointing in the
direction of dip!!
Structural Data
Symbols represent different structural
data
Symbols are placed on the map:
in the exact field orientation
where the data is measured
Standard Structural
Symboles
Exercises
geological maps
structure contour and structure maps
three-point problems
cross sections
sterionets
Geological Maps
distribution of rock types and
contacts
symbols on map represent structures
(strike and dip, fold axes, faults etc.)
map and structure symbols allow you to
infer subsurface structures
Outcrop patterns
Outcrop patterns controlled by
attitude (strike and dip) of beds and
topographic relief
V Rule
Beds dipping downstream V
downstream
Beds dipping upstream V upstream
Horizontal beds
layers always at the same altitude
do NOT dip in any direction
layered cake
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
Outcrop Patterns
Which direction are the beds dipping?
Block models
Relations between outcrop patterns and
subsurface structures
Datum Surface
Datum is a horizontal reference
surface
regional stratigraphic surface
Constructing Structural
Contours
Points of equal elevation along a bed contact
intersection of contact with topo contour
draw structure contours through points of equal
elevation
Planar surfaces
Uniformly dipping plane contours are
parallel
Rules of Contouring
1) contours cannot cross or bi-furcate
2) contours cannot end in the middle of the
map, except at a fault or other
discontinuity
3) same contour interval must be used across
the map and elevations must be labelled
4) elevation is specified relative to datum
(e.g. m above sea level)
Determining Dip
Dip direction and angle can be determined from structure
conour maps
measure horizontal separation X and find difference in Z
tan = Z/X, = tan 1 (Z/X)
e.g. = tan 1 (10m/100m), = 6
Three-point problem
A minimum of three points are required
to uniquely define the orientation of a
plane
Three-point problem
Find min and max
values
Draw line between
these and divide
distance into intervals
Connect points of
equal elevation
Two points in a plane
at the same elevation
lie in the line of strike
Three-point problem
Find min and max
values
Draw line between
these and divide
distance into intervals
Connect points of
equal elevation
Two points in a plane
at the same elevation
lie in the line of strike
Isochore Map
Drill hole logs giving the thicknesses in the drilled (often
vertical) direction
Apparent thickness true thickness = perpendicular to
bedding
Isopach Map
Map showing true thickness measured
perpendicular to bedding
Cross-sections
Cross-section is a 2-D slice
through stratigraphy
construct perpendicular to dip
= true dip
constructed at any other
direction = apparent dip
Engineering properties of
faulted or folded rock
shear strength
loose materials
compressive materials
permeable materials
Activity of faults?
Risk for further movement
active fault has moved in the last 100 000 to
35 000 years
dormant fault no recorded movement in
recent history
Indicators of fault
movement
fault scarps
stream displacement
sag ponds lineaments
vegetation displacement
Potential triggers
Case studies
Auburn Dam wide slender arch dam on the
American River, upstream of Sacramento,
California
Fig. 9.31
pre investigations
detailed mapping
8 km trenches
2 km exploratory tunnels
30 km borings
Auburn Dam
geology
Auburn Dam
foundation construction
earthquake occurred 5.7
regional fault study
reassessment
32 km trenches
more borings
surface excavations
Auburn Dam
Concluded that the faults wee formed in
another tectonic setting than the present
(compressional rather that extensional
stress field)
A review of the dam will it withstand
vibrations from a 6.5 magnitude quake on a
fault < 8 km from the dam??
Off set design recommended to withstand 25
mm to 900 mm
NO DAM built due to discussions on safety!
Baldwin
Excavation phase
Baldwin
Design
rock foundation lined with
asphalt and
gravel drain layer
covered with compacted clay
covered with asphalt
Baldwin
Construction phase 1947-51
fault 1 caused problems
slide initiated revealing that the fault
passed beneath the inlet/outlet tower
the tower was relocated 48 ft
Baldwin
after completion
Baldwin
nearby oil fields oil was being extracted
resulted in subsidence due to collapse of the aquifer
subsidence of 2.7 m between 1917 and 1962
Baldwin
Failure 1971
emptied completely in 4 hours
seepage along the fault had enlarged to a
pipe
then to a tunnel and
then the collapse of the roof
a canyon eroded completely through the
all of the reservoir
Baldwin
Failure 1971
Why??
cracks in the floor extended across the entire
reservoir along the trace of the fault
50 mm displacement
open voids along the fault
movement along the fault had fractured the lining
rupture of the asphalt membrane
water eroded cavities into the foundation rock