Reservoir

Introduction to:
fluids

By: Dr. Pavel Spirov

Lecture 1

Reservoir fluids

Literature:

Offshore Book,
Offshore center Denmark

Basics of reservoir engineering

R. Cosse
Lecture 1

Reservoir fluids

Lecture 1

Contents

Introduction
Oil composition and Origin
Source rocks, reservoirs, seals
Accumulation and migration processes

Lecture 1

Introducti
on
7%

Global energy
consumption

2% 1%

Crude oil 40%

Coal 25%
Natural gas 25%
Rest 10%

90%

fossil fuels nuclear hydropower other

Liquid fuels
Conventional
oils
Lecture 1

Reservoir and reservoir

fluids

Lecture 1

Origin of Crude Oil and Organic Matter

Lecture 1

Crude Oil Origin

Every oil or gas originates from a source rock
Source rock can be broadly defined as any fine grained organic rich
rock that is capable of generating petroleum given sufficient
exposure to heat and pressure
The organic theory of petroleum origin is based on the
accumulation of hydrocarbons from living things + the formation of
petroleum by action of heat on organic matter
Inorganic origin assumes oil forms from reduction of primordial
carbon or its oxidized form at elevated temperatures deep in the
earth
However the organic origin of petroleum is more widely accepted
Lecture 1

Pathways for origin of

crude oil
The first pathway (Hydrocarbons and protohydrocarbons in organisms) from life simply
represents accumulation of free hydrocarbons from dead organisms
About 10-20% of the petroleum is formed directly from the hydrocarbons synthesized by
living organisms or from their molecules which are directly converted to hydrocarbons
The end product is methane
The second pathway (Lipids proteins, carbohydrates) there are no free hydrocarbons until
kerogen is heated to a high enough temperature to crack it and release hydrocarbons
From 80-90% of petroleum is formed along this pathway. The end product is graphite
The organic origin of petroleum follows these two pathways from living materials

Lecture 1

Diagenesis, Catageneis and

Metagenesis
Diagenesis
is the biological, physical and chemical alteration of the organic debris before a pronounced
effect of temperature
It covers the temperature range up to approximately 50 oC
Catagenesis
The stage in which increasing temperatures cause kerogen to thermally decompose to bitumen,
and bitumen to oil, condensate and gas
The catagenesis range is from about 50 oC to 200 oC
Metagenesis:
The zone of higher temperatures from 200 to 250 oC in which small amount of methane
continue to be formed
The end of metagenesis is approximately the beginning of metamorphism in which kaolinite is
converted to muscovite and the greenschist facies begins to appear

Lecture 1

Diagenesis, Catagenesis and

Metagenesis

50 oC

200 oC
250 oC

Lecture 1

Oil Window

Lecture 1

Formation of oil and

gas
Subsurface temperature, which increases with depth, is a
critical factor in the creation of oil.
Petroleum hydrocarbons are generated= 65C - 260C.
Most hydrocarbons are found at moderate temperatures
ranging from 105 to 175C.

Lecture 1

Formation of oil
A)
1/ Animals + plants sunk to the bottom of
the sea and lagoons - layers of sediment
covered them
2/ work of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria
3/ covered with layers
4/ rotting material, mixed with grains of
sand and silt, began to change into the
hydrocarbons
5/ P and T speed up the process
Lecture 1

B)
1/ chemical
reactions took
place between
the decaying
organisms and
the salts in the
mud and water
surrounding
them.

Formation of gas
When applied to natural gas this is referred to as thermogenic
methane.
1/ organic material covered with mud and other sediment.
2/ more material = higher pressure
3/ it is buried deeper = high pressure and temperature
4/ At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is produced relative
to natural gas.
5/ Methanogenesis
6/ methane may be formed, is through a biogenic process (a non-biological
process, where oxygen is not involved).
Lecture 1

Organic Matter
(Kerogen)
In general organic rich kerogens are responsible for generating both oil and gas
Those with lesser amount of hydrogen will generate mainly hydrocarbon gas
After depletion of hydrogen in kerogen, generation of hydrocarbon will cease
regardless of amount of carbon
Kerogens can be divided into four types based on provenance and also on
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen content
Each type has a distinct bearing on what type of petroleum if any will be produced

Lecture 1

Kerogen Types
Type I:

generated mainly from lacustrine environments and in some cases marine

environments. Derived from algae, plankton and other matter, Rich in hydrogen, low in oxygen.
Responsible for 3% of Worlds oil and gas reserves ( Example Green River Formation, USA)

Type II:

Typically in reducing environment found in moderately deep marine settings. Derived

from remains of plankton reworked by bacteria. Rich in hydrogen low in carbon. Can generate oil
or gas with progressive heating and maturation (Example Kimmeridge Clay of North Sea)

Type III:

This is derived from terrigenous plant debris which have been deposited in shallow to
deep marine or nonmarine environments. Low in hydrogen and high oxygen content. Tend to
generate dry gas, most coals contain Type III kerogen

Type IV: Derived from residual organic matter found in older sediments reworked after
erosion. High carbon content and no hydrogen. No potential for hydrocarbon generation

Lecture 1

Elemental and Molecular Composition of Crude Oil

and Gas

Lecture 1

Petroleum Geology Fluids & Fluid Mechanics

RESERVOIR FLUIDS:
GAS
Mostly C1
Can contain CO2 and N2
Can contain H2S (sour gas)
Can be dry or wet

CONDENSATE
Mostly C1 with dissolved
light oil

OIL
Mostly C7+
Up to 50% C1 dissolved
Can contain H2S/S (sour oil)
s.gr. 0.8-1.0 g/cm3

WATER
Water + mostly NaCl
s.gr.1.0-1.2 g/cm3

Lecture 1

= Crude Oil

mixture of hydrocarbons

- Mostly C7+
- different types = like light, medium, heavy

complex mixture of Hydrocarbons + chemical compounds,

+S,N,O2
- color black, dark, white

Lecture 1

Elemental Composition of Crude

Oil /Kerogen
Petroleum originates by hydrocarbons that have been generated by
thermal alteration after burial of organic matter (kerogen) in sediments
Crude oils are composed by organic compounds characterized by
different molecular weight, size, shape, solubility and elemental
composition
Elemental composition of fossil fuel and kerogen (wt %)

Lecture 1

Gas

Oil

Asphalt

Coal

Kerogen

Carbon

76

84.5

84

83

79

Hydrogen

24

13

10

Sulfur

1.5

Nitrogen

0.5

Oxygen

0.5

10

100

100

100

100

100

Elemental Composition of Crude

Oil /Kerogen

C1, C2 ..etc. are hydrocarbon molecules with 1, 2 etc. carbon

atoms. iC4 & nC4 are isomeres of the same molecule.
GOR is the amount of gas dissolved in the oil (cubic feet/barrel)
Lecture 1

Molecular Size Variation of Crude Oil

The smallest molecules in petroleum is methane (CH4) with molecular weight
of 16 g/mol-1. The largest are the asphaltenes with molecular weights in
tens of thousands
Between these two extremes are thousands of compounds having simple to
complex structures
Petroleum is separated into its various molecular sizes by means of
distillation
A typical refining tower yields products from the smallest to the largest size
of molecule as follows:
-Gas, gasoline, kerosine, light gas oil (diesel fuel),
lubricating oil, and residuum
Lecture 1

heavy gas oil,

Molecular Size Variation

Crude Oil

Lecture 1

Lecture 1

Molecular Size Variation of

Crude Oil
Molecular Size

Volume Percent

Gasoline (C5 to C10)

27

Kerosene (C11 to C13)

13

Diesel fuel ( C14 to

C18)

12

Heavy gas oil ( C19

to C25)

10

Lubricating oil (C26

to C40)

20

Composition of a 35 o API Gravity Crude Oil

Lecture 1

Residuum (>C40)

18

Total

100

Molecular Type Variation

Paraffin (or olefin) series (CnH2n+2, saturated); generally the most abundant HC in oils
and gasses. C5 C15 chief constituents of gasoline. Higher paraffins form waxes, that can
give production problems. Prevalent in GASSES (CH4)
Naphthene (or cycloparaffin) series (CnH2n, saturated); closed rings with single covalent
bond; generally constitute 5-30% of gasoline.
Aromatic (or benzene) series (CnH2n-6, unsaturated); strong aromatic smell, up to 40% in
some Borneo crudes.
Asphalt; a mixture of constituents with high boiling point; asphalt is associated with
naphtenes.
Sulphur; 0.1-5.5% by weight, highest in carbonate reservoirs. Crude oils are sweet or
sour according to the sulfur content. Heavy oil (high specific gravity/low API)
generally has more sulfur than light oil (low specific gravity/high API).
N2, O2 and CO2; most crude oils contain small quantities of nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon
dioxide is common in natural gas.
Miscellaneous substances; crude oil commonly contains very small quantities of
microscopic inorganic and organic substances.

Lecture 1

Paraffin
CnH2n+2

Aromatics
CnH2n-6

Lecture 1

Naphthenes
CnH2n

Olefin
CnH2n-2

Crude oil
- Crude oil varies from different sources
- Some have valuable lighter hydrocarbons, and some
may have more of the heavier hydrocarbons

Lecture 1

Lecture 1

Gravity of Crude Oils

Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal volume
of water at a specified temperature
Specific gravity of oil fractions is generally determined at 15.6 oC (60F)
American Petroleum Institute (API) developed a linear gravity scale to determine
gravity by reading a simple hydrometer floating in oil
This API gravity was calculated to give water the value of 10 o API for a specific gravity
of 1
Gravity ,o API =141.5/Specific gravity (60oF)-131.5
Lecture 1

Crude oil gravity

Lecture 3-PVT

Lecture 1

Crude Oil
Correlations
The major objective is to recognize the source fingerprint of the
hydrocarbon molecules in oils, condensates, gases and asphalts
Bulk parameters used in oil-to-oil correlation includes API gravity, pour
point, percent sulfur, stable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, vanadium
and nickel and whole oil chromatograms
More specific correlations include separation of oil into saturate and
aromatic hydrocarbons and NSO compounds
Correlations using multiple parameters are enhanced by the use of
cross plots and ternary diagrams
Lecture 1

Crude Oil
Correlations
Oil-source rock correlations are generally more difficult than oil-oil
correlations because rock extracts are not necessarily comparable to the
expelled oils in molecular weight distribution, thermal maturation and
biodegradation
Good correlations of oils with their source rocks involve comparing mass
fragmentograms of steranes and terpanes
and using as correlation parameters individual biomarkers ratios such as
homophane, oleanane, gammacerane indices and tricyclic terpanes

Lecture 1

Chromatography analysis
H F _ B R IN _ 6 0 C _ 2 0 M P a _ 1 .S M S T IC

6 0 :6 5 0
C 17

k C o u n ts

50

C 15

C 10

C 23
C 24

C 21

C 22

C 19

20

C 20

C 12

C 18

30

C 16

C 13

C14

40

10

0
5

Lecture 1

10

15

20

25

30

35
m in u te s

Crude Oil Correlation

Crude oil correlation

Lecture 1

Lecture 1

Crude Oil Correlation

Lacustrine source
oil from China

Lacustrine source
oil from SouthChina

Marine source oil

from Gulf of
Mexico

Lecture 1

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a combustible mixture of small-molecule
hydrocarbons.

C1, C2, C3, C4

Lecture 1

Oil Window

Lecture 1

Natural Gas
No mixture can be referred to as natural gas as each gas stream has its own
composition. Even two gas wells from the same reservoir may have different
constituents.
Natural gas in its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home,
is almost pure methane
Dry gas
x
Wet gas
Natural gas is a vital component of the worlds supply of energy. It is
one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all energy sources.
Lecture 1

Natural Gas
Found in reservoirs underneath the earth, natural gas is commonly
associated with oil deposits
Measured at normal temperatures and pressures the volume is
expressed in
normal cubic feet (Ncf or Nf3) or normal cubic metres (Nm3).
Normal denotes a temperature of 0C and a pressure of 1 atm.

Lecture 1

Chemical Composition of gas

Lecture 1

Composition of natural gases:

) hydrocarbons alkenes CnH2n+2 and cycloalkan CnH2n.
) non-hydrocarbons N2, 2, 2S, mercury, mercaptans RSH.
) other gases He, Ar, Kr, Xe.
Phase state.
- Methane (4), ethane (26) and ethylene (24) at ( = 0,1 MPa and =
273 ) are real gases and comprise dry gas.
- Propane (26), propylene (36), iso-buthane (i=410), n-butane (n=410),
buthilenes (48) at atmosphere conditions are at vapour (gas) state and in a
liquid at higher pressures. Wet gases
- Hydrocarbons beginning from iso-penthane (i= 512) and heavier (17 n > 5) at
atmosphere conditions are in a liquid state (benzene fraction).
- Hydrocarbones with 18 and more atoms of carbon (from 1828) are in a solid
state at atmosphere conditions.

Reservoir
water

RESERVOIR FLUIDS:
GAS
Mostly C1
Can contain CO2 and N2
Can contain H2S (sour gas)
Can be dry or wet

CONDENSATE
Mostly C1 with dissolved
light oil

OIL
Mostly C7+
Up to 50% C1 dissolved
Can contain H2S/S (sour oil)
s.gr. 0.8-1.0 g/cm3

WATER
Water + mostly NaCl
s.gr.1.0-1.2 g/cm3

Reservoir water
5
%

10%

15%

20%

25
%

Primarily NaCl, but also salts from

combinations of the positive ions K+,
Ca++, Mg++ and the negative ions
SO4--, Cl- and HCO3Older rocks have more saline water.

Reservoir water

Temperature vs. depth

Pressure vs. depth

World average:
3.5 o C/100 m
or
2 o F/100 feet

Gradient ca.
:
1 psi/foot or
2.3 g/cm3
2.3 atm/10
m

Usual
gradient:
0.45 psi/foot
or
Ca. 1 g/cm3
1 atm/10 m

Degrees
F

Reservoir water
5

Phase behaviour of water

Pressure,
atmospheres

Water boils at 80-90 degrees C on top of Mt.

Everest
Water boils at > 100 degrees C at high pressure

2
Liquid (=
water)

Solid (=
ice)

Vapour (=
steam)

50

100
Temperature,
degrees C

Reservoir water

TRIPLE POINT: all 3 phases

exist at the same time
SUBLIMATION: change of
solid phase to vapour
phase (or reverse) without
passing through the liquid
phase
A-A: we produce oil fields
by reducing the pressure
while the temperature is
the same (isothermal
depletion). If this crosses
the vapour pressure curve
the production changes
from oil to gas.
B-A: what happens when
we reduce the temperature
while keeping the pressure

Accumulation and
Migration

Lecture 1

 Source rock
Reservoir
Structural Trap
Seal
Primary and secondary migration

Lecture 1

Source Rock
Rock that produce hydrocarbons from organic matter buried within the rock
pore spaces are known as source rocks
The most common organic rich sedimentary rocks, thought to be the
source rock of most oil and gas is shale
Many shales are black and are often termed as black shale
The black color comes primarily from its organic content
Black shale may have 1-3% of organic matter whereas a green shale may
have only about 0.5%
Lecture 1

Source Rock

Lecture 1

Source Rock
Of the organic matter deposited in the earth crust, only about 2%
becomes petroleum
Of this 2%, only about 0.5% (or 0.01% of the original organic
matter) finds its way into commercially exploitable reservoir
Petroleum generation is a very inefficient process
Limestone can also be a source rock
Methane generation is also coming from some coal beds
Lecture 1

Source Rock
Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as coal) tend
to be gas-prone
Preservation of organic matter without degradation is critical to creating a good source rock,
and necessary for a complete petroleum system
The hydrocarbons generated from thermally mature source rock are first expelled , along with
other pore fluids, due to the effects of internal source rock over pressuring caused by
hydrocarbon generation as well as by compaction
Once released into porous and permeable carrier beds or into faults planes, oil and gas then
move upwards towards the surface, an overall buoyancy driven process known as secondary
migration
Under the right conditions, source rocks may also be reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas
reservoirs
Lecture 1

Source Rocks

Lecture 1

Reservoirs

Lecture 1

Reservoirs
In a reservoir the gas, oil and water are found in pore spaces or fractures within the
rock matrix
Most reservoirs worldwide are contained in sandstone and carbonates structures
that have sufficient porosity to give a good volume of reserves and a high enough
permeability to be able to produce it
Reservoirs are rarely uniform throughout, may consist of layers of materials with
slightly different characteristics
Within the reservoirs there maybe faults or distortions, other rocks maybe present
and all these can form barriers to free flow of hydrocarbons
In USA around 80% of reserves are in sandstones, and 20% in carbonates. In Middle
East almost 100% are in carbonates
Lecture 1

Reserv
oirs

Porosity

Permeability

Lecture 1

Formation of oil
It is important to realize that these hydrocarbons did not
form pools
of oil underground.

porosity

Lecture 1

Reservoir

Lecture 1

Reservoir rock

LIMESTONES:

SANDSTONES: consist og
quartz, feldspar grains and
clay minerals.
Porosity mostly intergranular
(in between the sand grains)

Lecture 1

Consist of calcite generated by

biological activity. Can chemically b
changed into dolomite.
Porosity types:
Intergranular (between grains)

Intragranular (inside grains/fossils)

Dissolution (vugs, caverns)

Seal Rock
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly
shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier
or seal above and around reservoir rock so
that fluids cannot migrate beyond the
reservoir
Buoyant, migrating fluids remain trapped in
the reservoir by the cap rock unless
deformation or erosion breaches the seal
It is often found atop a dome. The
permeability of a cap rock capable of
retaining fluids through geologic time is ~
10-6-10-8 darcies.
The best petroleum seals are gas hydrates,
followed by evaporites

Lecture 1

Gas Hydrates
What are Gas Hydrates?
Gas hydrates are naturally
ocurring, crystalline, ice-like
substances composed of gas
molecules (methane, ethane,
propane, etc.) held in a cagelike ice structure. (clathrate).

Lecture 1

Migration of petroleum
Process of petroleum migration has been divided into two
parts: primary and secondary migration
Primary migration has been considered to be the
movement of oil and gas and within and out of the
nonreservoir source rocks into the permeable reservoir rocks
Secondary migration is the movement within carrier rocks
and reservoir type rocks leading to a petroleum accumulation

Lecture 1

Migration of Oil and Gas

Lecture 1

Migration of Oil and Gas

Migration. Movement of hydrocarbons in the porous rock.

Lecture 1

Primary migration
Primary migration is more correctly defined as any movement within the fine grained
portion of the mature source rock
Primary oil migration in source rocks with 2% or more TOC occur initially as a bitumen
that absorbs water and expands into micropores and beddings plae to form a water
saturated bitumen
As the bitumen partially decomposes to oil, the later mixes with gas from the kerogen
and migrates out as an oil gas mixture
This may be as a single or separate phase depending on the pressure-temperature
conditions
Water is an important factor that influences the direction, distance and areal extent of
petroleum migration
Lecture 1

Primary migration

Primary migration is driven mainly by petroleum generation and the

buoyancy of the hydrocarbon products
Lecture 1

Primary migration
Inscience,buoyancy/
b.nsi/is an upward
force exerted by a fluid
that opposes theweight
of an immersed object.
In a column of fluid,
pressure increases with
depth as a result of the
weight of the overlying
fluid.

Lecture 1

Primary Migration
The mechanisms of hydrocarbon migration inside the
matrix of a fine grained source rock are diffusion,
solution and oil-gas phase
Most primary migration occurs as an oil-gas phase
Diffusion and solution is relevant to only the smallest
and most soluble molecules

Lecture 1

Primary migration
Diffusion: is a spontaneous, irreversible process in which hydrocarbons
move in the direction of lower concentration
Diffusion tends to disperse hydrocarbons rather than concentrate them
It is an exceedingly slow process
Methane which moves further by diffusion than do all other
hydrocarbons still takes 140 million years to move vertically through
1740 m of rock matrix

Lecture 1

Primary Migration

Lecture 1

Primary Migration (contd.)

Migration in solution:
Methane is widely distributed in the subsurface because of its solubility in pore
fluids and its ease of migration in the gas phase
Methane shows up in the mud logs from almost all areas and stratigraphic
sections
Its prominent in the oil-and gas-generation window where its solubility is about
20ft3/bbl pore water or 2500ppm
Hydrocarbons dissolved in pore waters come out of solution because of the
following changes:
- increase salinity, decrease pressure and temperature,

Lecture 1

partitioning with an oil and gas phase, and increase gas

saturation

Primary Migration (contd.)

Gas-Phase migration:
Compressed gas can dissolve increasing amount of heavy liquid hydrocarbons as
the pressure and temperature increase
Subsurface gases dissolve large amounts of liquid hydrocarbons under temperaturepressure conditions corresponding to depth ranges of 6000 to 10000 ft( Sokolov et
al. 1963)
Gas phase migration however cannot account for giant oil accumulation such as
those Middle East unless it is assumed huge volumes of gas has been lost
Under average subsurface condition, gas has about twice the migration potential of
oil because its bouyancy overcomes the higher interfacial tension of gas-water
systems
Lecture 1

Primary Migration (contd.)

Oil Phase Migration:
Increased thermal stress generated a continuous bitumen network within the source
rock groundmass
As temperature went up, bitumen formed an oil that impregnated microspores in the
shale and then expelled the excess into adjacent fractures
The decrease in the density of the bitumen and oil products compared with the original
kerogen caused a net volume increase of the total organic matter within the matrix
permeability of the shale
Also the bitumen network increase the oil wettability of shale resulting in a mixed oilwater wettability that would facilitate primary migration of the oil phase
This caused the expulsion of the oil from the source rock
Lecture 1

Primary Migration

Lecture 1

Secondary Migration
The main driving force for secondary petroleum migration is the buoyancy of the hydrocarbons
The resisting force is the capillary pressure of the rock water system
The modifying forces include hydrodynamic fluid flow and isolated abnormal pressure
compartments
The buoyant force is the difference in density between the hydrocarbon phase and the water
phase, the greater the difference the greater the buoyant force will be for the hydrocarbon
column
Migration directions and distances from source rock to reservoir rock depends on the basin size
and configuration
For example vertical migration depends on faults to carry the oil from source to reservoirs

Lecture 1

Overview

Lecture 1

ALL CRITERIA MUST BE FULFILLED TO GIVE SUCCE

TYPICAL SUCCESS RATE: 10%

Lecture 1

Lecture 2

Temperature depends on the

depth of burial and the
geothermal gradient
(temperature increase/100 m)

(Ro = measurement
that can be made under
a microscope)

Petroleum Geology Anatomy of oil & gas fields

Different types of organic material generate different types of

hydrocarbons. With sufficient tempearture they are all
eventually converted to gas.

Oil Reserves

Lecture 1

Oil Reserves

Lecture 1

Oil Reserves

Lecture 1

Gas Reserves

Lecture 1

Lecture 1