Nuclear Physics

Properties of Nuclei
Binding Energy
Radioactivity

Nuclear Components

Nucleus contains nucleons: protons and neutrons

Atomic number Z = number of protons
Neutron number N = number of neutrons
Mass number A = number of nucleons = Z + N
Each element has unique Z value
Isotopes of element have same Z, but different N
and A values
Notation: ZA X

Nucleus Charge and Mass

Particle

Charge

Mass (kg)

Mass (u)

Mass (MeV/c2)

Proton

+e

1.672 6 E27

1.007 276

938.28

Neutron

1.675 0 E27

1.008 665

939.57

Electron

9.109

5.486 E4

0.511

E31

Unified mass unit, u, defined using Carbon 12

Mass of 1 atom of 12C 12 u

1 u 1.660 559 10

27

kg 931.494 MeV c

Nuclei Sizes
Scattering experiments
determine size
Measured in femtometers
(aka fermis)
All nuclei have nearly the
same density

Fig. 29.2, p. 959

r r0 A

13

1 fm 10 15 m

29.1

Nuclear Stability
An attractive nuclear
force must balance the
repulsive electric force
Called the strong
nuclear force
Neutrons and protons
affected by the strong
nuclear force
260 stable nuclei
If Z > 83, not stable
Fig. 29.3, p. 960

Binding Energy
Total energy of
nucleus is less than
combined energy of
individual nucleons
Difference is called
the binding energy
(aka mass defect)
Energy required to
separate nucleus
into its constituents

m mi m A

Binding Energy vs. Mass Number

Fig. 29.4, p. 961

Radioactivity
Unstable nuclei decay to more stable nuclei
Can emit 3 types of radiation in the process

particles : He nuclei
4
2

particles : e or e
rays : high energy photons
A positron (e+) is the antiparticle
of the electron (e)
Fig. 29.5, p. 962

Decay Constant and Half-Life

Decay rate (aka activity) is number of
decays per second
is the decay constant
Unit is Curie (Ci) or Becquerel (Bq)
Decay is exponential
Half-life is time it takes for half of the
sample to decay

1 Ci 3.7 1010 decays s 1 Bq 1 decay s

N
R
N
t

29.3

N N 0 e t

ln 2 0.693
T1 2

29.5

29.4a
Fig. 29.6, p. 919

Alpha Decay
Unstable nucleus emits
particle (i.e., a helium
nucleus) spontaneously
Mass of parent is
greater than mass of
daughter plus particle
Most of KE carried away
by particle
A
Z

Fig 29.7, p. 966

A 4
Z 2

Y He
4
2

29.8

Beta Decay
Involves conversion of proton to
neutron or vice-versa
Involves the weak nuclear force
KE carried away by
electron/antineutrino or
positron/neutrino pair
Neutrinos: q = 0, m < 1 eV/c2, spin
, very weak interaction with
matter

n p e

A
Z

p 01n e

A
Z

X Z A1Y e

1
0
1
1

Fig. 29.8a, p. 968

1
1

A
Z 1

Y e

29.11
29.12

Gamma () Decay
Following radioactive decay, nucleus may be left
in an excited state
Undergoes nuclear de-excitation:
protons/neutrons move to lower energy level
Nucleus emits high energy photons ( rays)
No change in A or Z results
12
5

B 126C* e

12
6

C* 126C

Radioactive
Carbon Dating
Cosmic rays create 14C
from 14N
Constant ratio of 14C/ 12C
(1.31012) in atmosphere
Living organisms have
same ratio
Dead organisms do not (no
longer absorb C)
T of 14C = 5730 yr
Measure decay rates, R

R R0 e

ln R R0
t

Natural Radioactivity
Three series of naturally occurring
radioactivity

232

238

Thorium Series

235

Th more plentiful than U or U

Nuclear power plants use enriched
uranium
Other series artificially produced

Fig. 29.10, p. 971

Nuclear Reactions
Accelerators can
Atomic and mass
generate particle
numbers (Z and A) must
energies up to 1 TeV
remain balanced
Bombard a nucleus with Mass difference before
energetic particles
and after reaction
determines Q value
Nucleus captures the
Exothermic: Q > 0
particle
Endothermic: Q < 0
Result is fission or fusion
Endothermic requires
incoming particle to have
KEmin

Fusion and Fission

Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Radioactive emissions can ionize atoms
Problems occur when these ions (e.g.,
OH, H+) react chemically with other ions
Genetic damage affects reproductive cells
Somatic damage affects other cells
(lesions, cataracts, cancer, fibrosis, etc.)

Quantifying Radioactivity
Quantity

Definition

SI unit

Common Unit

Activity

# nuclei that
decay per sec

1 Bq 1 decay/s 1 Ci = 3.701010 Bq

Exposure (defined
for X and rays
only)

1 R amount of
radiation that
Roentgen (R)
Ionization per kg
produces
2.58104 C/kg

Absorbed Dose (D)

1 Gray (Gy)
Energy
absorbed per kg
1 J/kg

1 rad = 102 Gy

Relative Biological
How much more damage is done compared to X or
Effectiveness (RBE) rays of equivalent energy (unitless).
Damage
Dose Equivalent (H)
expected

1 Sv
1 RBEGy

1 rem = 102 Sv

RBE Factors
Radiation Type
X and rays

RBE Factor
1.0

particles

1.01.7

particles

1020

Slow n

45

Fast n and p

10

Heavy ions

20
Table 29.3, p. 974

Sources of Ionizing Radiation

From Touger, Introductory Physics, Table 28-4, p. 817

Typical Dose Equivalents

From Touger, Introductory Physics, Table 28-4, p. 817

Exercise
Is the dose equivalent greater if you are exposed
to a 100 mrad dose of particles or a 300 mrad
dose of particles?

particles:
particles:

H min 10 100 mrad 1 rem

H max 20 300 mrad 6 rem

H min 1100 mrad 0.1 rem

H max 1.7 300 mrad 0.51 rem

particles are more effective at delivering a

dose, but do not penetrate as far as particles