TRIANGULATION

TRIANGULATION
It is one of the methods of providing
control in an area which is to be
surveyed
It is based on the Trigonometric
proposition that if one side and
three angles of a Triangle be
known, the remaining sides can
be computed by the application
of Sin Rule i.e.

TRIANGULATION
These stations form the vertices of a series
of mutually connected triangles, the
complete figure called as triangulation
system
For checking, last line is measured
accurately on field and compared with the
commutated from triangulation, called
check base
Check bases are established regularly in
series of long triangulation system

TRIANGULATION
The triangulation stations at which
azimuth, latitudes and longitudes are
measured from astronomical
observations are called azimuth,
latitude or longitude stations
Triangulation system is used to
establish control points with respect
to distances from a reference point,
longitudes or latitudes and azimuths

TRIANGULATION
The object of triangulation is to determine the
relative position of a system of widely separated
points on the surface of earth and also their
absolute positions.
The relative positions are determined in
terms of azimuths and line joining them,
absolute position is determined in terms of
latitudes and longitudes and elevation above
MSL.
The geodetic points so determined will furnish the
most precise controls for a more detailed survey of
the intervening country

Objective
The main objective of triangulation is to provide a number of stations
whose relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical,
are accurately established. More detailed location or engineering
survey are then carried out from these stations.
The triangulation surveys are carried out
(i)
(ii)
(iii
)
(iv)

to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas,
to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations for
latitude, longitude
to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as:
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large
rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large
water bodies, etc..
(d) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

TRIANGULATION
Methods employed in Geodetic survey to
establish control are
Triangulation More accurate
Precise Traversing Less accurate but in areas
where Triangulation is not feasible e-g densely
wooded country of very flat ground

Base Line AB is measured

Internal angles at A, B , C are measured

C
D

Principle
PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION
Figure shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in
both the triangles, and the length L of the side AB, have been
measured.Also the azimuth 0 of AB has been measured at the triangulation
station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known.
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations
B, C, and D by the method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the
lengths of all the lines.
By sine rule in

ABC , we have

Principle
AB

We have

sin 3

BC
=

sin 1

CA
sin 2

AB = L = lAB

or

BC =

and

CA =

L sin 1 l

BC

sin 3
L sin 2

sin 3 lCA

Now the side BC being known in BCD, by sine rule, we have

BC
sin 6

CD

BD

sin 4
sin 5
L sin 1 l
BC

We have

BC =

or

CD =

sin 3
L sin 1 sin 4

sin 3 sin 6

and

L sin 1 sin 5

BD =

sin 3 sin 6

lCD
lBD

Principle
Let us now calculate the azimuths of all the lines.
Azimuth of AB = AB
Azimuth of AC = 1 AC
Azimuth of BC = 180 2 BC
Azimuth of BD = 180 (2 4) BD
Azimuth of CD = 2 5 CD
From the known lengths of the sides and the azimuths, coordinates as below.
Northing ofAB = l AB cos AB LAB
Departure of AB = l AB sin AB DAB
Northing of AC =

l AC cos AC

LAC

Departure of AC = l AC sin AC DAC

Northing of

BD = lBD cos BD LBD

Departure of BD = BD sin BD

LBD

Principle
Northing of CD = lCD cos CD LCD
Departure of CD = lCD sin CD DCD
The desired coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D are as follows
:
X.- coordinate of B, XB = X A DAB

- coordinate of B, YB = YA LAB
of C, XC = X A DAC
= YA LAC
DBD

X-coordinate
Y-coordinate of C, YC
X-coordinate of D, XD = X

Y-coordinate of D, YD = YB LBD

It would be found that the length of side can be computed more than once
following different routes, and therefore, to achieve a better accuracy, the

THE PROCESS
a. Selection of suitable points as triangulation
stations in the area to be surveyed
b. Measurement of a Base Line
c. Measurement of all the angles of the triangle and
adjustment of misclosures
d. Computations of lengths of other two sides of the
triangle
e. Computation of coordinates of unknown point
f. Taking one computed side as Base for the next
triangle and measurement of all the angles and so
on
g. Measurement of a Check Base at an interval of 200
to 500 Km
h. Determining Azimuth at the intervals of 250 Km by
astronomical observations. Determining of
Longitude and latitude are also necessitated at
times

TRIANGULATION FIGURES
a. Triangles
b. Quadrilaterals
c. Pentagon or Hexagons
Chain of braced quadrilaterals is the best
followed by centered point polygon

TRIANGULATION FIGURES
a. Triangles
b. Quadrilaterals
c. Pentagon or Hexagons
Chain of braced quadrilaterals
is the best followed by centered
point polygon

TRIANGULATION FIGURES
a. Single Chained Triangles
b. Double Chain Triangles

c. Braced Quadrilaterals

TRIANGULATION FIGURES
d.

Centered triangles and polygons

TRIANGULATION FIGURES
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two
or more independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route, and preferably two
routes form well- conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end
of the series is used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30. In the case of centered
polygons, no angle should be less than 40.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and
very short lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum
progress.

CLASSIFICATION
a. Primary
1. Initial survey of an area
2. First order standard accuracy
3. Very Precise equipments and methods
employed
4. Length of base line 5-20 km or more and
sides 30 to 160 km or more. Longer lengths
5. Triangle misclosure 13
6. Degree of accuracy is 1 in 500,000
7. Check on base is 1 in 25000

DESIGN of
TRIANGULATION
Types of frame work for Primary
triangulation
a. Series of connecting chains or Grid
iron system. (Australia, India, USA)
b. A continuous mesh of triangles or
the central system (UK)

CLASSIFICATION
b. Secondary
1. Breakdown of primary triangle
2. Second order accuracy
3. Less Precise equipments and methods
employed as compared to Primary
4. Length of base line 2-5 km and sides 8 to 70km.
Shorter lengths as compared to primary
5. Triangle misclosure - 3 to 8
6. Degree of accuracy is 1 in 50,000
7. Check on base is 1 in 10,000

CLASSIFICATION
c. Tertiary
1. Further break down of primary and secondary
work to provide control for Topographic survey
2. Third order accuracy
3. Less Precise equipments and methods employed
as compared to Primary
4. Length of base line 1-3 km and sides 1.5 to 10
km. Smaller triangles
5. Triangle misclosure - 6 to 12
6. Degree of accuracy is 1 in 5000
7. Check on base is 1 in 5000

ABSOLUTE POSITION,
ORIENTATION & SCALE
a. Accurate measurement of Base will
set the scale
b. Determining the Azimuth will fix the
orientation
c. Determining the Longitude and
Latitude of one of the base
terminals will fix the position on the
earths surface

PRESERVATION of
ACCURACY
Accuracy is preserved by
a. Check Bases at intervals of 200 to 500Km
b. Azimuth is checked at intervals of 250Km
c. Using well conditioned figures. Angle (30o120o) but an
equilateral triangle is ideal and square equilateral is ideal
d. Fully observing all closed figures
* The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the
arrangement of triangles in the layout and the magnitude of the
angles in individual triangles. The triangles of such a shape, in
which any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect
upon the computed lengths, is known as well-conditioned
triangle.

WELL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES
The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the
arrangement of triangles in the layout, and the magnitude of the
angles in individual triangles. The triangles of such a shape, in
which any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect upon
the computed lengths, is known as well-conditioned triangle.
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one side is
generally obtained from computation of the adjacent triangle. The
error in the other two sides if any, will affect the sides of the
triangles whose computation is based upon their values. Due to
accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus affected
thereafter.
The best shape of an isoceles triangle is that triangle whose base
angles are 5614' each. However, from practical considerations, an
equilateral triangle may be treated as a well-conditional triangle. In
actual practice, the triangles having an angle less than 30 or more
than 120 should not be considered.

RECONNAISSANCE
a.
b.
c.
d.

Examination of country to be surveyed

Suitable site for Base Line
Positions for triangulation stations
Determining
1. Intervisibility
2. Clearance required in line of sight for
intervisibility

e. Information regarding
1.
2.
3.
4.

Access to station
Transport facilities
Supply of food, water etc
Camping ground or suitable accommodation

SELECTION of STATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Intervisible
Should form well conditioned triangles
Should be easily accessible
Useful for detail survey
Convenient/suitable length of line of
sight

STATION MARKS
1. Should be permanently marked with copper
or bronze tablet on which its name and year
be stamped
2. It should be referenced with atleast two
reference marks and these reference sketches
should be giving of station and its location
3. Should be set on concrete monument or
stable rock
4. In earth an additional mark be placed about
30 inches below surface in stone or concrete

TOWERS
a. In flat areas or under peculiar
conditions towers may be necessary
b. Calculation of height of tower
needed for clearance of line of sight
c. It increases logistic problems

COMPUTATION &
ADJUSTMENTS
Observations are adjusted for
1. Removing misclosures
2. Consistency

Strength of Figure
The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation system
to maintain the computations within a desired degree of precision. It plays also an
important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation system.
The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys has developed a convenient method of
evaluating the strength of a triangulation figure. It is based on the fact that
computations in triangulation involve use of angles of triangle and length of one
known side. The other two sides are computed by sine law. For a given change in the
angles, the sine of small angles change more rapidly than those of large angles. This
suggests that smaller angles less than 30 should not be used in the computation of
triangulation. If, due to unavoidable circumstances, angles less than 30 are used,
then it must be ensured that this is not opposite the side whose length is required to
be computed for carrying forward the triangulation series.
The expression given by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys for evaluation of the
strength of figure, is for the square of the probable error (L)(Sixth place of log) that
would occur, if the computations are carried from a known side through a single chain
of triangles after the net has been adjusted for the side and angle conditions. The
expression for L is

Strength of Figure
L =

4
3

dR

... (1.9)

where d is the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of arc, and R is a term which represents the
shape of figure. It is given by
R=

DC
2
( A A B B2 )
D

where
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,

...
(1.10)

A , B , C = the difference per second in the sixth place of log of the sine of the distance angles A, B and

C, respectively. (Distance angle is the angle in a triangle opposite to a side), and

C = the number of geometric conditions for side and angle to be satisfied in each figure. It is given by
C = (n' S' + 1) + (n 2S + 3)
... (1.11)
where
n = the total number of lines including the known side in a figure,
n' = the number of lines observed in both directions including the known side,
S = the total number of stations, and
S' = the number of stations occupied.

Strength of Figure
In any triangulation system more than one routes are
possible for various stations. The strength of figure
decided by the factor R alone determines the most
appropriate route to adopt the best shaped
triangulation net route. If the computed value of R
is less, the strength of figure is more and vice
versa.