Historical Lingustics

WS 2005/6

Topics
Patterns of language change
Explanations of lanaguae change
Implications of language change

Grammatical changes
Wegen des Wetters

>

wegen dem Wetter

Kme

>

wrde kommen

Meinetwegen

>

wegen mir

Meines Vaters Auto

>

mein Vater sein Auto

Weil ich das nicht mag >

weil ich mag das nicht

British newspapers
We seem to be moving towards a social and
linguistic situation in which nobody says or writes or
probably knows anything more than an
approximation to what he or she means.
[The Sunday Times 1999]

British newspapers
English used to be a language which foreigners
couldnt pronounce but could often understand.
Today it is rapidly becoming a language which the
English cant pronounce and few foreigners can
understand.
[The Daily Telegraph 1968]

British newspapers
We go out of our ways to promulgate incessantly
the very ugliest sounds and worst possible grammars.
[The Sunday Times 1986]

Recent changes in English

(1)
(2)
(3)

The media is not objective.

These sort of things.
He is like: .

Recent changes in English

(1)

Fortunately, I have a spare fan belt.

(2)

Honestly, you have no taste in clothes.

(3)

Hopefully, well be there in time for lunch.

Recent changes in English

(1)

My care is being broken.

(2)

My house is being painted.

(3)

This problem is being discussed in class.

(1)

My car is repairing.

(2)

My house is painting.

(3)

This problem is discussing in class.

What linguists say

The history of all Aryan languages is nothing but a
gradual process of decay.
[Max Mller 1886]

What linguists say

In the evolution of languages the discarding of old
flexions goes hand in hand with the development of
simpler and more regular expedients that are rather
less liable than the old ones to produce
misunderstandings.
[Otto Jespersen 1922]

What linguists say

Progress in the absolute sense is impossible, just as it
is in morality or politics. It is simply that different states
exist, succeeding each other, each dominated by
certain general laws imposed by the equilibrium of the
forces with which they are confronted. So it is with
language.
[Joseph Vendryes 1923]

Readings
Aitchison, J. Language Change. Progress or Decay. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Croft, W. 2000. Explaining Language Change. An Evolutionary
Approach. Harlow: Longman.
McMahon, A.M.S. 1995. Understanding Language Change.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hock, H.H. 1991. Principles of Historical Linguistics. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Trask, R.L. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold.

Course script
Digitale Bibliothek Thringen
Search: History of the English language

Everything that students have always

wanted to know about phonology (but
where ashamed to ask )

Classification of consonants
Voicing
Manner of articulation
Place of articulation

Voiced voiceless consonants

[f]

father

[v]

vase

[s]

salt

[z]

zoo

[t]

tree

[d]

door

Manner of articulation

Affricates

[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

[?]
[f] [v] [T] [D] [s] [z]
[S] [Z]
[tS]
[dZ]

[c] [J] [q]

[G]
[C] [x] [q]
[G]
[ts] [pf]

Nasals

[m] [n] []

[]

Liquids

[l] [r]

[R]

Glides

[w] [y]

Plosives
Fricatives

Place of articulation
Bilabial

[p] [b] [m] [w]

Labiodental

[f] [v]

Interdental

[T] [D]

Alveolar

[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l]

[r]
[S] [Z] [tS] [dZ]
[y]
[k] [g] [] [w]

Pala-Alev.
Velar

[c] [J]
[x] []

Uvular

[q] [G]

Pharyngeal

[] []

English consonants
Bilabial Labiodental
Stop

Interdental

p b

Alveol.

t d

Affricate

f v

Fricative
Nasal

Lateral
Glide

Alveol.- Velar
palatal

D s z
n
l/r

k g
tS
dZ
S Z h

Classification of vowels
height
advancement
lip rounding
tenseness

English vowel chart

English
diphthongs

Phonemes and allophones

[thOt]

top

[stOp]
plain
/p t k/

aspirated
stop

[ph th kh] / #__, V'

[p t k] elsewhere

Contrastive complementary
distribution
[l{k]

lack

[param]

wind

[r{k]

rack

[irim]

name

[lif]

leaf

[pal]

foot

[rif]

reef

[mal]

horse

[l]

[r] / V __ V
[l] elsewhere

[r]

[l] / __#
[r] elsewhere

Aspiration
[thOt]

top

[stOp]
plain
/p t k/

aspirated
stop

[ph th kh] / #__, V'

[p t k] elsewhere

Nasalization
[kn]

can

[km]

come

/V/

[V] / __N
[V] elsewhere

Vowel lengthening
[bE:d]

bed

[h{:v]

have

/V/

[V:] / __ [+voice]
[V] elsewhere

Flapping
[bQr]

butter

[bEQr]

better

/t/

[Q] / after stressed syllables at the

beginning of an unstressed syllable
[t] elsewhere

Morphophomemics
[k{ts]
kisses

cats

[dOgs]
giraffes

[kis@z]
dogs

[dZ@r{fs]

[bUS@z]

bushes

[garaZ@z] garages

[karz]

cars

[m{tS@z]

[laIts]
lights
[dETs]
deaths
[s]
after voiceless speech sound
[b{ks]
[z]
after voiced speech sounds
[@z] after sibilants

matches

banks

Morphophonemics
[ImpOsIbl]

impossible

[InsEns@tIv]
[IkOnsIst@nt]

[m]

insensitive
inconsistent

before labials

[n]
before
alveolars
[]

before velars

Exercise 1
Provide the phonetic symbol
a. High front tense unrounded vowel

[i]

b. Low back lax unrounded vowel

[a]

c. Voiced labiodental fricative

[v]

d. Voiceless palatal fricative

[S]

e. Voiced velar nasal

[]

Exercise 2
Provide the articulatory features
a. [z]

Voiced, alveolar, fricative

b. [dZ]

Voiced, palatal-alveolar, affricate

c. [y]

Voiced, palatal, glide

d. [I]

High, front, lax, unrounded

e. [U]

High, back, lax rounded

Exercise 3
Identify the common articulatory features
a. [k, , g, x]

velar

b. [v, Z, z, D]

voiced fricatives

c. [w, y]

glides

d. [i, e, o, u]

tense vowels

e. [e, o, O, E]

mid vowels

Exercise 4
Provide the IPA symbol for the first speech sound
a. though

[D]

a. judge

[dZ]

b. easy

[i]

b. Thomas

[t]

c. knife

[n]

c. physics

[f]

d. thought

[T]

d. civic

[s]

e. contact

[k]

e. use

[y]

Exercise 5
Write in ordinary English
a. [ritS]

reach

b. [rIdZ]

ridge

c. [kaIt]

kite

d. [{ktSn]

action

e. [T{ks]

thanks

f. [Sules]

shoelace

Exercise 5 (Italian)
[fago]

mud

[tinta]

dye

[tEnda]

tent

[tEgo]

I keep

[tigo]I dye

[fugo]

mushroom

[nero]

black

[byaka]

shite

[ake]

also

[dansa]

dance

[dZEnte]
soap

people

[sapone]

Exercise 5 (Italian)
[fago]

mud

[tinta]

dye

[tEnda]

tent

[tEgo]

I keep

[tigo]I dye

[fugo]

mushroom

[nero]

black

[byaka]

shite

[ake]

also

[dansa]

dance

[dZEnte]
soap

people

[sapone]

Exercise 6 (German)
[axt]

eight

[IC]

[bux]

book

[ECt]

real

[lOx]

hole

[sprIC]

speak

[ho:x]

hoch

[lEC@ln]

smile

[fluxt]
smell
[lax@n]

flight
laugh

[riC@n]
[fECt@n]

to fence

Exercise 6 (German)
[axt]

eight

[IC]

[bux]

book

[ECt]

real

[lOx]

hole

[sprIC]

speak

[ho:x]

hoch

[lEC@ln]

smile

[fluxt]
smell
[lax@n]

flight
laugh

[riC@n]
[fECt@n]

to fence

Exercise 7 (Old English)

[brigan]

to bring

[lUvU]

love

[drikan]

to drink

[mannes]

mans

[f{st]

fast

[mo:na]

moon

[fi:fta]

fifth

[ni:xsta]

next

[fOlk]

folk

[Offrian]

to offer

[fOnt]

font

[Ovans]

oven

[ha:t]

hot

[n:on]

noon

[hlo:T]
rough
[TUgEn]
lengthen

troop
full grown

[ru:x]
[l@gan]

to

Exercise 7 (Old English)

[brigan]

to bring

[lUvU]

love

[drikan]

to drink

[mannes]

mans

[f{st]

fast

[mo:na]

moon

[fi:fta]

fifth

[ni:xsta]

next

[fOlk]

folk

[Offrian]

to offer

[fOnt]

font

[Ovans]

oven

[ha:t]

hot

[n:on]

noon

[hlo:T]
rough
[TUgEn]
lengthen

troop
full grown

[ru:x]
[l@gan]

to

Exercise 7 (Old English)

[brigan]

to bring

[lUvU]

love

[drikan]

to drink

[mannes]

mans

[f{st]

fast

[mo:na]

moon

[fi:fta]

fifth

[ni:xsta]

next

[fOlk]

folk

[Offrian]

to offer

[fOnt]

font

[Ovans]

oven

[ha:t]

hot

[n:on]

noon

[hlo:T]
rough
[TUgEn]
lengthen

troop
full grown

[ru:x]
[l@gan]

to

Exercise 7 (Old English)

[brigan]

to bring

[lUvU]

love

[drikan]

to drink

[mannes]

mans

[f{st]

fast

[mo:na]

moon

[fi:fta]

fifth

[ni:xsta]

next

[fOlk]

folk

[Offrian]

to offer

[fOnt]

font

[Ovans]

oven

[ha:t]

hot

[n:on]

noon

[hlo:T]
rough
[TUgEn]
lengthen

troop
full grown

[ru:x]
[l@gan]

to

The Indo-European
Language Family

Germanic
Germanic

West Germanic

North Germanic

East Germanic

English

Swedish

Gothic

Frisian

Danish

Vandal

German

Norwegian

Burgundian

Yiddish

Icelandic

Dutch
Afrikaans

Romance
French
Italian
Spain
Portuguese
Romanian

Catalan
Galician
Sardinian
Provencal
Rhomansh

Sir William Jones

Old Languages
Indo-European (3500)
Semitic
Chinese
Japanese
Arabic
Turkish
Dravidian
African languages
Native American languages

Phonetic evidence

You spotted snakes with double tongue,

Thorny hedge-hogs, be not seen;
Newts, and blind-worms, do no wrong;
Come not near our fairy queen.
(Shakespeare)

Phonetic evidence

cosul consul
cesor censor
(Latin inscriptions)

Phonetic evidence
We produce this letter by pressing the lower
lip on the upper teeth. The tongue is turned
back towards the roof of the mouth, and the
sound is accompanied by a gentle puff of
breath.
(Roman grammarian)

700

English

500
400

Armenian
Gothic

0
200

Latin

400

Classical Sanskrit

800

Greek

1000

Old Persian

1200

Hittite

1500

Vedic Sanskrit

3000

Proto Indo-European

Sound correspondences between Sanskrit,

Latin and Greek
Sanskrit

Latin

Greek

asmi
asi
asti
smas
stha
santi

sum
es
est
sumus
estis
sunt

eini
ei
esti
esmen
este
eisi

English
sun
house
cat
apple
father
hand
go
see
hear
run
dream

German
Sonne
Haus
Katze
Apfel
Vater
Hand
gehen
sehen
hren
rennen
trumen

Swedish
sol
hus
kat
pple
fader
hand
gar
sar
hra
rnnar
drmar

English-German sound correspondences

time
tongue
ten
tame
tent
to
two
twins

Zeit
Zunge
zehn
zahm
Zelt
zu
zwei
Zwillinge

Second Germanic sound shift

time
tongue
ten

Zeit
Zunge
zehn

that
there
through

das
da
durch

pan
path
pole

Pfanne
Pfad
Pfahl

hat
eat
let
grip
deep
sleep

hassen
essen
lassen
greifen
tief
schlafen

English-German sound correspondences

cheese
child
chin
cheery
church
king

Kse
Kind
Kinn
Kirsche
Kirche
Knig

Sound correspondences in Romance

Hundred
Sky
Stag
Wax

Italian

Sardinian Romansh French

tSEnto
tSelo
tSErvo
tSera

kEntu
kElu
kErbu
kEra

tsjEnt
tsil
tsErf
tsairaE

sa
sjEl
sER
siR

Spanish
tSjen
tSjelo
tSjerbo
tSera

Numerals in Indo-European
English

Gothic

Latin

Greek

Sanskrit

one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten

ains
twai
Trija
fidwor
fimf
saihs
sibun
ahtau
niun
taihun

unus
duo
tres
quattuor
quinque
sex
septem
octo
novembe
decem

heis
duo
treis
tettares
pente
heks
hepta
okto
ennea
deka

ekas
dva
trayas
catvaras
panca
sat
sapta
asta
nava
dasa

PIE numbers
Proto-Indo-European

English

*sems, *oi-

one

*duwo / *dwo

two

*treyes

three

*kwetwores

four

*penkwe

five

*sweks / *seks

six

*septam

seven

*okt

eight

*newan

nine

*dekamt

ten

Sound correspondences across unrelated

languages

news
time
book
service
beggar

Arabic

Urdu

Turkish

Swahili

Malay

xabar
waqt
kitab
xidmat
faqir

xabar
vaqt
kitab
xidmatgari
faqir

haber
vakit
kitap
hizmet
fakir

habari
wkati
kitabu
huduma
fakiri

khabar
waktu
kitab
khidmat
fakir

Latin

Old English

Gothic

/p/ /f/

pedum
piscis

fot
fisc

fotus
fiskis

/t/ //

tres
tu

three [Tri]
thou [TaU]

thrir
thuU

/k/ /x/h/

cordem
centum

heart
hundred

hairto
hund

turba crowd

thorp village

/d/ /t/

edo
decem

eat
ten

itan
taihun

/g/ /k/

ager
genus

acre
kin

akrs
kuni

IE

Old English

Gothic

*bhero
*dhura
*ghostis

beran
duru
gasts

bara
dar
giest

/b/ /p/

/bh/ /b/
/dh/ /d/
/dh/ /d/

Grimms law

*p t k

f T x/h

*b d g

ptk

*bh dh gh

bdg

Exceptions to Grimms law

[p t k]

[f T x]
Sanskrit
vrtate
varrta
vavrtim
vavrta:n

[b d g]
Old English
weorTan
wearT
wurdon
worden

Verners law
[p t k]

[f T x] / [stressed syllable] __
[b d g] / [unstressed syllable] __

Neogrammarian Hypothesis
Every sound change takes place according to
laws that admit no exceptions.
[Karl Brugmann]

Internal Reconstruction
[D]

father
mother
feather
heather
weather
bother

[T]
think
thief
thick
thin
thigh
thank