ELE324:NON CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY SOURCES AND

ENERGY
AUDITING

ENERGY
SOURCES

The energy sources are classified

way:
Non commercial fuel or natural
include wood, animal waste and
waste.
commercial
fuel which include
fuels(coal, oil, natural gas)
Hydraulic energy(Energy obtained
use of Potential energy water).

in following
fuels which
agricultural
the

fossil

through the

Conventional energy sources:

Non-Commercial fuel: These flue include woods,
leaves ,agro waste, dung of animal etc.
Commercial fuel: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas
Commercial fuel
1.Fossil fuels
Atomic Fuel
Coal
Uranium
Petroleum Radium
NaturalGas
Plutonium

The Non Conventional Sources of Energy

are:
Tidal energy.
Energy from sea waves.
Geothermal energy or terrestrial heat energy.
Hydel energy using small size power plants.
Solar energy.
Wind energy

Hydraulic Energy: Hydraulic energy is also known as water

power. When river water falls from the mountain, its potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy
The major potentials and limitations of the conventional
sources of energy:
Major portion of the energy requirement in the world today is
met by the conventional sources of energy like coal, petroleum,
natural gas and atomic fuels.
The conventional sources of energy exists in finite reserves in
the world they are rapid ally depleting due to increase
consumption of energy . they are likely to exhausted in future.
There are always danger of fire and accidents during use of
conventional sources of fuel.
The conventional sources of fuel have great polluting effect on
environments.
Transportation and distribution of conventional sources of fuel
are very costly.

Problems in using renewable energy sources:

Availability of renewable energy sources is not
reliable, uniform and steady.
Concentration of renewable energy source is very less
Renewable energy can not be stored for future use
Renewable energy sources are not available where
they are badly needed
Collection and utilization of renewable energy is very
expensive.
Is not yet put into practicable uses and not made
widely accepted to the people.
largely depends on favorable geographical conditions

Conventional sources of energy

Non-conventional sources of energy

1.
2.

1.

1.
2.

1.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

They are available in fixed reserve

Their prices are rapidly increasing due to short
supply
They pollute atmosphere due to combustion
and chemical processes associated with it.
Transportation of conventional sources energy
is costly
They have ownership of certain nations or
individuals
There is a danger of explosion and accidents
during their use.
They can be stored.

2.
3.

1.

They are available in abundance

They are freely available
These is no problem of pollution
They are available everywhere and there is
no problem of transportation
They are freely available to every one and
there is no problem of owner ship.
They are fairly safe.
They cannot be stored.

Advantages of renewable sources of energy:

are never exhausting sources of energy
available in many forms and they have unlimited supply
the renewable energy sources are nonpolluting.
are freely available to every body
not going through the process of combustion so high temperature and
pressure are not produced during their use.

Disadvantages :

not available at everywhere in uniform and steady supply.

Energy concentration is very less.
Not possible to store renewable energy sources.
Equipments operating on renewable forms of energy are very
expensive.
are not very popular amongst their users due to high cost of
exploitation.
Energy from renewable sources is not available on very large scale
and continuously as in conventional sources

Energy Crisis and Energy Demand projection.

Energy crisis: we are now interested to know how much
potential is existing in our country for the development of
renewable energy sources. Conventional sources like coal,
petrol, diesel etc. are becoming more and more costly due to
their increasing demand day by day. This has led to the
condition of what is popularly known as energy crisis.
Reason for Energy crisis:
Rapid increase in per capita consumption of coal, petrol,
electricity etc.
Development of science and technology and rapid
industrialization.
Increase in population.
Increase in transportation and communication cost.
Unstable political and socio economical conditions, wars, etc. In
petroleum rich countries.
Price escalations and restricted ownership of the sources of
energy

TYPES OF SOURCES

RENEWABLE: CAN BE REGENERATED IN A

SHORT AMOUNT OF TIME OR IS BASICALLY
UNLIMITED
NON-RENEWABLE: CANT BE REPLACED IN
A SHORT AMOUNT OF TIME AND IS
LIMITED

NON-RENEWABLE

FOSSIL FUELS

NATURAL GAS
COAL
OIL

RENEWABLE
HYDRO
SOLAR
GEOTHERMAL
WIND
FUSION

FOSSIL FUELS
Coal, Oil and Gas are
called "fossil fuels"
because they have been
formed from the fossilized remains of prehistoric plants and animals.
They provide around 66% of the world's electrical power, and 95% of the
world's total energy demands

HOW FOSSIL FUELS

WORK
Coal

is crushed to a fine
dust and burnt. Oil and
gas can be burnt directly.

Burn fuel> heat water to make steam>

steam turns turbine>turbine turns
generator>electrical power
sent around the country

Coal provides around

28% of our energy, and
oil provides 40%.

Crude oil (called "petroleum")

is easier to get out of the ground
than coal, as it can flow
along pipes. This also
makes it cheaper
to transport.

Natural gas provides

around 20% of the
world's consumption of
energy

ADVANTAGES TO USING FOSSIL

FUELS
Very

large amounts of electricity can be

generated in one place using coal, fairly
cheaply.
Transporting oil and gas to the power stations
is easy.
Gas-fired power stations are very efficient.
A

fossil-fuelled power
station can be built
almost anywhere

DISADVANTAGES OF USING FOSSIL FUELS

Basically,

the main drawback of fossil fuels is pollution.

Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which
contributes to the "greenhouse effect", warming the
Earth.
Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that
contributes to acid rain.
With the United States importing 55% of its oil, oil spills
are a serious problem
Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous. Strip
mining destroys large areas of the landscape.

Some power stations are built on the coast, so they

can use sea water to cool the steam instead.
However, this warms the sea and can affect the
environment, although the fish seem to like it.

IS IT RENEWABLE?

Fossil fuels are NOT a

renewable energy resource
Once

we've burned them all, there isn't any more,

and our consumption of fossil fuels has nearly
doubled every 20 years since 1900.
This is a particular problem for Oil, because we
also use it to make plastics and many other
products.

WIND ENERGY

WHAT IS WIND ENERGY ?

It is the conversion of the energy of wind into useful form of
energy using
Wind turbines for electric power
Wind mills for mechanical power
Wind pumps for water pumping
Sails to propel ships
In the beginning, this source of energy was used to propel the
ships that moved them in the direction of the wind.
Later it was used as a mechanical usage for grinding.
But since a few years, this has been increasingly used for the
generation of electricity for basic household purposes and also in
large scale usages.

WHY WIND ENERGY? (ADVANTAGES)

Alternative source to the fossil fuels
Plentiful source
Renewable source
Widely distributed
Clean source
No greenhouse gas produced
Less problematic
Easy to maintain

THE WIND TURBINE

A wind power plant is a device that converts kinetic energy from
the wind into electric power
The smaller wind turbines are used for battery charging for boats
or caravans or to power traffic warning signs.
The larger turbines are used for producing the domestic power
not totally but they do a visible contribution !
Arrays of large turbines known as wind farms are becoming an
important source.
In simple words, the wind turbines works the opposite of fan.
Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electricity but offshore
wind is a steadier and stronger source.

THE INSIDE OF A WIND TURBINE

It consists of three
main partsRotor blades
Shaft
Generator

MAIN PARTS
ROTOR BLADES- The blades are sails of the system. They are
the barriers to the wind.
When the wind blows, the blades move and it transfers some of
its energy to the rotor.
SHAFT- The wind turbine shaft is connected to the centre of
the rotor. When the rotor spins, the shaft also spins.
This way, rotor transfers its mechanical energy (rotational) to
the shaft which enters the electrical generator on the other end.
GENERATOR- It uses properties of electromagnetic induction to
produce electric voltage.

FUNCTION OF EACH PARTS

ANEMOMETER- Calculates wind speed and transmits data to the

controller.
BLADES- Lifts and rotates when wind blows over them, the rotor spins.
Most turbines contain 2-3 blades.
BRAKE- Stops the rotor when in emergencies.
CONTROLLER- Starts up the wind speed of about 8-16 mph and shuts
at 55 mph (above this causes damage)
GEAR BOX- Connects low speed to high speed shaft and increases the
rotational speed.
GENERATOR- Produces 60 cycle AC electricity
HIGH SPEED SHAFT- Drives the generator.
LOW SPEED SHAFT- Rotates at about 30-60 rpm.

NACELLE Sits atop the tower, contains gear box, shafts, generator,
controller and brake.
PITCH- Turns blades to control rotor speed.
ROTOR- Blades and hub together form the rotor.
TOWER- Supports the structure of turbine. Made of tubular steel, concrete
or steel lattice.
WIND DIRECTION- Determines the design of turbine.
WIND VANE- Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw
drive to orient turbine w.r.t the wind.
YAW DRIVES- Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind
when it changes.
YAW MOTOR- Powers the yaw drive.

INSIDE THE GENERATOR

The generator consists of magnets and a conductor of coiled
wire.
Inside the generator, the shaft connects to an assembly of
permanent magnets that surrounds the coil of wire.
In EI, if a conductor is surrounded by magnets and one of them
and one of those parts is rotating relative to the other, it induces
voltage in the conductor.
When the rotor spins the shaft, the shaft spins the assembly of
magnets, generating voltage in the coil of wire.
That voltage drives electrical current(AC power) and out them
through power lines for distribution.

DISADVANTAGES OF WIND
ENERGY
The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to
storm force. This means that wind turbines do not produce the same
amount of electricity all the time. There will be times when they
produce no electricity at all.
Many people feel that the countryside should be left untouched,
without these large structures being built. The landscape should left
in its natural form for everyone to enjoy.
Wind turbines are noisy. Each one can generate the same level of
noise as a family car travelling at 70 mph.
Many people see large wind turbines as unsightly structures and
not pleasant or interesting to look at. They disfigure the countryside
and are generally ugly.
When wind turbines are being manufactured some pollution is
produced. Therefore wind power does produce some pollution.
Large wind farms are needed to provide entire communities with
enough electricity. For example, the largest single turbine available
today can only provide enough electricity for 475 homes, when

APPLICATIONS
Energy-generating wind turbines: Wind turbines are
installed to capture the power of the wind and be able to convert
it to energy. This can be on a broad scale, such as the wind
turbines found on wind farms or can be on a smaller scale, such
as individual wind turbines people use to generate power for
their home. Companies even want to take advantage of the wind.
For example,
Sams Club was the first retailer reported to install a significant
number of on-site micro wind turbines
.
Wind-powered vehicles: Youve probably heard about this one
recently.
A car, powered primarily by wind (using kites), just completed a 3
,100 mile journey across Australia
. While it wasnt 100% powered by the wind, it was a good
example of how cars can also be powered using alternative

Wind/Kite-Powered Cargo Ships: Another great example of

tapping into the power of the wind, can be found with Cargill.
Cargill has stepped up and gone with the innovative idea of installin
g a large kite on one of its cargo ships
in order to tap into the power of the wind and thus reduce fuel
consumption and CO2 emissions. Now, of course wind has been
used for hundreds and thousands of year to power sailing and
smaller vessels, but now it is being used to help power larger
cargo ships as well.
Wind-Powered Sports: For many, many years the wind has

been used to power our love of sports, both literally and

figuratively. Everything from simple kite-flying to sailing, windsurfing, kite-surfing, hang-gliding, para-sailing, wind-skiing and
more.

Wind-Powered Water Pumps: Using the wind to help pump

water out of the ground is not something new. It is however a very
helpful and sometimes much needed tool when it comes to some
communities and countries. Tapping into the power of the wind
makes sense, esp when it comes to the work needed to pump

POWER
GENERATION
BY
GEOTHERMA

WHAT WE WILL
LEARN?
Introduction

Working principle

Types
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application

INTRODUCTION

What is geothermal energy?

Geo earth and thermal- heat

Geothermal heat is constantly produced
by the Earth from the decay of
radioactive material in the core of the
planet. The heat is moved to the surface
by conduction and convection.

Geothermal electricity:

Electricity generated from geothermal energy.

Estimates of the electricity generating potential
of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2,000GW.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

CNTD..

Fluid is extracted from production well.

Produces steam in a condenser.
Steam rotates the turbine.
This rotates an electrical generator connected
through a shaft.
Rotational energy is converted to electrical
energy.

Electrical energy is then transferred to

transformers
The remaining liquid that is not flashed into
steam is then sent back to the earths crust.

CNTD

TYPES:

1.
2.
3.

Three typesDry steam power plant.

Flash steam power plant.
Binary power plant

CNTD..
1.

Dry steam power plantused to generate power directly from the steam
generated inside the earth.
we do not need additional heating boilers and
boiler fuel.
steam or water vapour fill the wells through
rock catcher and directly rotates the turbine.

CNTD..
2. Flashed steam power plant use waters at temperatures greater than 360F.
water is collected in a flash tank where drop in
pressure causes the liquid to boil into steam.
The steam is separated from the liquid.
it then runs the turbine which thus runs the
generator producing electrical energy.

CNTD
3. Binary power plants uses high temperature geothermal water.
the water heat another fluid which has a lower
boiling point than water.
fluid vaporizes to steam, drives the turbines, then
condenses to liquid to begin the cycle again.

ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES:
Advantages:
Renewable.
Negligible emission of CO2 and other pollutants
Minimum land requirement.
Energy source(hot spring) can be directly used.
Available at all times.

CNTD
Disadvantages:
Not widespread source of energy.
High installation costs.
only suitable for regions which have hot rocks
below the earth.
May release harmful gases.
Geothermal Energy can not be easily
transported.

APPLICATIONS:
Industrial processes

The heat is used for digesting wood pulp, drying

timber and paper, and generating electricity.
2. Horticulture

Geothermal water is used for heating

greenhouses on a small scale, especially for the
commercial, out-of-season production of
vegetables, flowers and fruit.
3. Crop and timber drying
1.

HYDROELECTRICITY

ADVANTAGES OF
HYDROELECTRICIT
Y
Once the dam is built, the
energy is virtually free.
No waste or pollution produced.
Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.
Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with
peaks in demand.
Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full
power very quickly, unlike other power stations.
Electricity can be generated constantly.

DISADVANTAGES TO
HYDRO-ELECTRICITY

The dams are very

expensive to build.
Building a large dam will flood a very large
area upstream, causing problems for
animals that used to live there.
Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the
impact on residents and the environment
may be unacceptable.
Water quality and quantity downstream can
be affected, which can have an impact on
plant life.

IS IT RENEWABLE?

Hydro-electric power is

renewable.

The Sun provides the water by

evaporation from the sea, and will
keep on doing so.

HOW BIOMASS WORKS

Plant and animal waste is used to

produce fuels such as methanol,
natural gas, and oil. We can use
rubbish, animal manure, woodchips,
seaweed, corn stalks and other wastes.
Sugar cane is harvested and taken to a mill, where it is crushed to
extract the juice. The juice is used to make sugar, whilst the leftover pulp, called "bagasse" can be burned in a power station.
Other solid wastes, can be burned to provide heat, or used to make steam for
a power station.

Burn fuel>heat water to make steam>steam turns

turbine>turbine turns generator>electrical power sent
around the country

ADVANTAGES TO
BIOMASS
It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.
The fuel tends to be cheap.
Less demand on the Earth's resources.

DISADVANTAGES TO USING BIOMASS

Collecting the waste in
sufficient quantities can be
difficult.
We burn the fuel, so
it makes greenhouse gases.
Some waste materials are not available all year
round.

IS IT
RENEWABLE?

Biomass

is renewable

We will always make waste products.

We can always plant & grow more sugar cane
and more trees, so those are renewable too.

TIDAL ENERGY

TIDAL POWER
Tidal

power works rather like a hydro-electric scheme,

except that the dam is much bigger.
A huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river
estuary. When the tide goes in and out, the water flows
through tunnels in the dam.
The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to turn a
turbine, or it can be used to push air through a pipe, which
then turns a turbine. Large lock gates, like the ones used
on canals, allow ships to pass.
Only around 20 sites in the world have been identified as
possible tidal power stations.

ADVANTAGES TO TIDAL POWER

Once you've built it, tidal power is free.
It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.
It needs no fuel.
It produces electricity reliably.
Not expensive to maintain.
Tides are totally predictable.

DISADVANTAGES TO
TIDAL POWER

barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build,

and affects a very wide area - the environment is
changed for many miles upstream and downstream.
Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so
that they can feed. there are few suitable sites for tidal
barrages.

Only

provides power for around 10 hours each day,

when the tide is actually moving in or out.

IS IT RENEWABLE?
Tidal

energy

is
renewable.

The tides will

continue to ebb
and flow, and
the energy is
there for the
taking.

SOLAR POWER GENERATION

OVERVIEW:
Introduction
Types

of power
generation & its
mechanism
Advantages
Disadvantages
Applications

INTRODUCTION:
Solar

power is the generation of

electricity from sunlight. This can be
direct with photovoltaics (PV), or
indirect as with concentrating solar
power(csp).
Solar energy is the form of
electromagnetic radiation emitted from
the sun, but especially that the part of
their energy that is converted into
Thermal or ELECTRICAL energy on
earth.

Photo means light & voltaic refers to the

PHOTOVOLTAICS
Production of electricity.
Photovoltaics (PVs) are arrays of cells
containing a solar photovoltaic material that
converts solar radiation into direct current
electricity. Materials presently used for
photovoltaics include monocrystalline,
silicon, polycrystalline silicon,
amphorous silicon, cadmium telluride,
and copper indium selenide/sulphide

MECHANISM:
Photoelectric
Effect:
Basic

process by
which a photovoltaic
cell converts
absorbed sunlight
into electricity
Photons knock
electrons free from
the silicon structure,
freeing them to enter
electric current and
power a load (like a
light bulb)

TYPES OF PV:
THERE ARE OF 3 TYPES. THEY
ARE:

1) Grid connected:
The most popular type of solar PV system
for homes and
businesses. The solar system is
connected to the local electricity network allowing any
excess solar electricity produced to be sold to the
utility. Electricity is taken back from the network
outside daylight hours. An inverter is used to convert
the DC power produced by the solar system to AC
power needed to run normal electrical equipment.
2) Off-grid:

Completely independent of the grid, the solar

system is directly connected to a battery which stores
the electricity generated and acts as the main power
supply. An inverter can be used to provide AC power,
enabling the use of normal appliances without mains
power.

3) Hybrid System:

A solar system can be combined

with another source of power - a
biomass generator, a wind turbine or
diesel generator - to ensure a
consistent supply of electricity. A
hybrid system can be grid connect,
stand alone or grid support.

TYPES OF PV SHEETS:
1)Monocrystalline PV
Polycrystalline PV

2) Thin-film PV
3)
4) Thick-film PV

1)Monocrystalline PV:
The most efficient of the PV technologies in good
light conditions

2)Thick-film PV:
Efficient in poor light conditions. Very
low embodied energy. The most
environmentally friendly form of PV.

3)Polycrstalline PV:
Also highly efficient in good light
conditions. Less embodied energy than
monocrystalline.

4)Thin-film PV:
The most efficient in poor light
conditions. An extremely sturdy, vandalproof PV.

CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER

PLANT

Concentrated solar power(CSP) systems use

lenses or mirrors to focus a large area of
sunlight onto a small area. Electrical power
is produced when the concentrated light is
directed onto photovoltaic surfaces or used
to heat a transfer fluid for a conventional
power plant.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SOLAR POWER

PLANT

HOW MUCH SOLAR ENERGY?

The surface receives about 47% of the total

solar energy that reaches the earth. Only
this amount is usable.

ADVANTAGES:
Solar cells are long lasting sources of energy
which can be used almost anywhere. They are
particularly useful where there is no national
grid and also where there are no people such as
remote site water pumping or in space.
Solar cells provide cost effective solutions to
energy problems in places where there is no
mains electricity. Solar cells are also totally silent
and non-polluting. As they have no moving parts
they require little maintenance and have a long
lifetime. Compared to other renewable sources
they also possess many advantages; wind and
water power rely on turbines which are noisy,
expensive and liable to breaking down.

ADVANTAGES:

Solar cells can also be installed in a

distributed fashion, i.e. they don't need
large scale installations. Solar cells can
easily be installed on roofs which means no
new space is needed and each user can
quietly generate their own energy.

DISADVANTAGES:

The main disadvantage of solar energy is the

initial cost.
Solar energy is currently thought to cost about
twice as much as traditional sources (coal, oil
etc).
Air pollution and weather can also have a large
effect on the efficiency of the cells.
The silicon used is also very expensive and the
problem of nocturnal down times means solar
cells can only ever generate during the daytime.
Cost of electricity from coal-burning plants is
anywhere b/w 8-20 cents/kWh, while photovoltaic
power generation is anywhere b/w $0.50-1/kWh.
Underlying problem is weighing efficiency against
cost.

EFFICIENCY:

43%

of photon energy
is used to warm the
crystal.
Efficiency drops as
temperature increases
(from 24% at 0C to 14%
at 100C.)
Light is reflected off
the front face and
internal electrical
resistance are other
factors.
Overall, the efficiency
is about 10-14%.

Does not reflect the true

costs of burning coal and
its emissions to the
nonpolluting method of
the latter.
Crystalline siliconmore efficient, more
expensive to
manufacture
Amorphous siliconhalf as efficient, less
expensive to produce.

CALCULATORS,RADIOS,LAMPS,CHARGE
RS,ETC

Nuclear Power

What is nuclear energy?

Power plants use heat to produce electricity.
Nuclear energy produces electricity from heat
through a process called fission. Nuclear power
plants use the heat produced by fission of certain
atoms.

1. Nuclear fission
nucleus of atom is split into parts,
produces free neutrons and
energy

Nuclear Fuel: Uranium

92

U
Uranium

http://www.ecolo.org/photos/uranium/uranium-black.jpg

The fuel used in

nuclear power
plants is an
isotope of the
radioactive
element uranium

2. Uranium-235
Fission of U-235 splits nucleus
in two pieces
releases neutrons for chain
reaction
Nuclear fission chain
reaction releases energy in
the form of heat

Nuclear Reactors
3. Nuclear Reactor device built
to sustain a controlled nuclear
fission chain reaction
Main Components of
Nuclear Reactor:
- reactor vessel
- tubes of uranium
- control rods
- containment structure
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Crocus-p1020491.jpg

control rods control

Containment
structure
radioactivity,
absorbs
contains
the reaction
neutrons
in
at least 3 feet of
concrete!
www.pbase.com/pbrakke/image/44279993

Just as conventionalpowerstationsgenerate electricity by

harnessing thethermal
energyreleased from
burningfossil fuels, nuclear
reactors convert the thermal
energy released fromnuclear
fission.
HOW Nuclear Fission Take

Combine
Unstable
Atom
split
Krypton

Large
amount
of
Barium
energy

3 neutrons

Nucl
ear
Fissio
n

FUNCTION OF

Control Rod:

Part of the control system of anuclear reactorwhich directly affects the

rate of the reaction takeing place in the reactor. A control rod is usually a
rod or tube made of steel or aluminum containingboron,cadmium, or
some other strong absorber ofneutrons. It can be moved up or down on its
axis.

Moderator:
A substance used innuclear reactorsto reduce the speed offast
neutrons produced bynuclear fission. These substances consist
ofatomsof light elements, such asdeuteriuminheavy
water,graphite, andberyllium, to which neutrons are able to
impart some of their energy on collision, without being captured.
Neutrons that have been slowed down in this way are much more
likey to cause new fissions ofuranium-235 than they are to be
captured by uranium-238.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS

INSIDE THE CORE:
Fuels

rods: These are made up of

hundreds of U-235 pallets stacked with
each other.
Moderator: Its function is to slow down
the speed of neutrons because proper
speed of neutrons is reqd in order to get
captured by nucleus and hence cause
fission.
Control rods: These are made of material
that are higjly efficient neuton
captures,these rods can be inserted or
withdrawn from the reactor core to control
the rate of reaction.

 Coolant:

It is used to absorb heat from the

reactor.
Steam generator: It generates high
pressurises steam to spin the turbine.
Containment: It is a sheild made of
concrete and steel to protect the nuclear
reactor from the environment and to
protect the environment from any
radiation due to malfunction.

NUCLEAR REACTORS

THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF

NUCLEAR REACTORS
A Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) keeps water under
pressure so that it heats up but doesnt boil. Water from
the reactor and water that is turned into steam are in
separate pipes.
A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) uses the heat from
fission to heat water until it boils. The water from the
reactor and that water that is turned into steam are the
same

The Nuclear Power Plant

Fission occurs
in the reactor
vessel. Heat is
produced.

The steam is
cooled in the
condenser to
return to the
liquid phase.

4. Nuclear power plant

consists of all the
parts needed to create
electricity by using
The heat is used nuclear energy
to heat water to
create steam

The steam is
used to turn the
turbine in the
generator to
produce
electricity

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR

The most common type of reactor -- the PWR uses regular

old water as a coolant. The primary cooling water is kept
at very high pressure so it does not boil. It goes through a
heat exchanger, transferring heat to a secondary coolant
loop, which then spins the turbine. These use oxide fuel
pellets stacked in zirconium tubes. They could possibly
burn thorium or plutonium fuel as well.
Pros:
Strong negative void coefficient -- reactor cools down if
water starts bubbling
Secondary loop keeps radioactive stuff away from turbines,
making maintenance easy.
Cons:
Pressurized coolant escapes rapidly if a pipe breaks,
necessitating lots of back-up cooling systems.
Cant breed new fuel -- susceptible to "uranium shortage"

SODIUM
COOLED
FAST
REACTOR
The first electricity-producing nuclear reactor in the world was SFR (the EBR

1 inArco,Idaho). As the name implies, these reactors are cooled by liquid

sodium metal. Sodium is heavier than hydrogen, a fact that leads to the
neutrons moving around at higher speeds (hencefast). These can use metal or
oxide fuel, and burn anything you throw at them (thorium, uranium,
plutonium, higher actinides).
Pros:
Can breed its own fuel, effectively eliminating any concerns about uranium
shortages (seewhat is a fast reactor?)
Can burn its own waste
Metallic fuel and excellent thermal properties of sodium allow for passively
safe operation -- the reactor will shut itself down without any backup-systems
working (or people around), only relying on physics (gravity, natural
circulation, etc.).
Cons:
Sodium coolant is explosively reactive with air, water. Thus, leaks in the pipes
results in sodium fires. These can be engineered around (by making a pool
and eliminating pipes, etc.) but are a major setback for these nice reactors.
To fully burn waste, these require reprocessing facilities which can also be
used fornuclear proliferation.
Positive void coefficients are inherent to all fast reactors. This is a safety
concern.

LIQUID FLUORIDE COOLED THORIUM

REACTOR

LFTRshave gotten a lot of attention lately in the media. They are unique so
far in that they use molten fuel. So there's no worry of meltdown because
theyre already melted. The folks over atEnergy from thoriumare totally
stoked about this technology.
Pros:
Can constantly breed new fuel, eliminating concerns over energy resources
Can be maintained online with chemical fission product removal,
eliminating the need to shut down during refueling.
No cladding means less neutron-absorbing material in the core, which leads
to better neutron efficiency and thus higher fuel utilization
Cons:
Radioactive gaseous fission products are everywhere, ready to escape at the
first breach of containment. This violates the common practice of defense-indepth where there are multiple levels of protection. All liquid fuel reactors
have this problem.
The presence of an online reprocessing facility with incoming pre-melted
fuel is aconcern. The operator could easily divert Pa-233 to provide a stream
of nearly pure weapons-grade U-233. Thus, anyone who operates this kind of
reactor will have easy access to bomb material.

BOILING WATER REACTOR

Second most common, the BWR is similar to the PWR in

many ways. However, they only have one coolant loop. The
hot nuclear fuel boils water as it goes out the top of the
reactor, where the steam heads over to the turbine to spin it.
Pros:
Simpler plumbing reduces costs
Power levels can be increased simply by speeding up the
pumps, giving less boiled water and more moderation. Thus,
load following is fun.
Cons:
With liquid and gaseous water in the system, many weird
transients are possible, making safety analysis difficult
Primary coolant is in direct contact with turbines, so if a
fuel rod had a leak, radioactive material could be placed on
the turbine. This complicates maintenance as the staff must
be dressed for radioactive environments.
Cant breed new fuel -- susceptible to "uranium shortage

HIGH TEMPERATURE GAS COOLED

REACTOR

HTGRsuse little pellets of fuel backed into either hexagonal

compacts or into larger pebbles (in the prismatic and pebble-bed
designs). Gas such as helium or carbon dioxide is passed through
the reactor rapidly to cool it.
Pros:
Can operate at very high temperatures, leading to great thermal
efficiency (near 50%!) and the ability to create process heat for
things like oil refineries, water desalination plants, hydrogen fuel
cell production, and much more.
Each little pebble of fuel has its own containment structure,
adding yet another barrier between radioactive material and the
environment.
Cons:
High temperature has a bad side too. Materials that can stay
structurally sound in high temperatures and with many neutrons
flying through them are hard to come by.
If the gas stops flowing, the reactor heats up very quickly. Backup
cooling systems are necessary.

Advantages of Nuclear Power:

Nuclear power plants don't require a lot ofspace- they
have to be built on the coast, but do not need a large plot
like a wind farm.
It doesn't contribute tocarbon emissions- no CO2is
given out - it therefore does not cause global warming.
It does not producesmoke particlesto pollute the
atmosphere.
Nuclear energy is by far the mostconcentrated form of
energy- a lot of energy is produced from a small mass of
fuel. Thisreduces transport costs.
It isreliable. It does not depend on the weather. We can
control the output It is relatively easy to control the output although the time factor for altering power output is not as
small as for fossil fuel stations.
It produces asmall volume of waste.

DIADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR
POWER:

Disposal of nuclear wasteis very expensive. As it is

radioactijive it has to be disposed of in such a way as it will not
pollute the environment
Decommissioningof nuclear power stations is expensive and
takes a long time.

Nuclear accidentscan spread radiation producing

particles over a wide area, This radiation harms the cells of
the body which can make humans sick or even cause death.
Illness can appear or strike people years after they were
exposed to nuclear radiation and genetic problems can
occur too. A possible type of reactor disaster is known as a
meltdown. In a meltdown, the fission reaction of an atom
goes out of control, which leads to a nuclear explosion
releasing great amounts of radioactive particles into the
environment.

Key Components of
2. Uranium-235
1. nuclear fission

3. nuclear
reactor
4. nuclear power
plant

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Power Production in Wisconsin

- U.S. produces about 31%
of worlds nuclear power
- consumes about 22%

WI - 2 nuclear power
plants, Kewaunee and
Point Beach

20% of WIs energy is from nuclear power

Kewaunee Power
Plant

Point Beach Nuclear

Power Plant

Carlton, WI

Two Rivers, WI

APPLICATIONS

What is a Fuel Cell?

Quite simply, a fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy, water, and heat through electrochemical reactions.
Fuel and air react when they come
into contact through a porous
membrane (electrolyte) which separates
them.
This reaction results in a transfer of
electrons and ions across the electrolyte
from the anode to the cathode.
If an external load is attached to this
arrangement, a complete circuit is formed
and a voltage is generated from the flow
of electrical current.
The voltage generated by a single cell is typically rather small (< 1 volt), so many
cells are connected in series to create a useful voltage.

Fuel Cell Vs. Battery

Basic operating principles of both are very similar, but there are several
intrinsic differences.
Hydrogen fuel cell
Galvanic cell (battery)

Open system
Anode and cathode are gases in
contact with a platinum catalyst.
Reactants are externally supplied,
no recharging required.

Closed system
Anode and cathode are metals.
Reactants are internally consumed,
need periodic recharging.

Fuel Cell Vs. Internal Combustion Engine

Similarities:
Both use hydrogen-rich fuel.
Both use compressed air as the oxidant.
Both require cooling.

Differences:
Fuel cell:

Output is electrical work.

Fuel and oxidant react electrochemically.
Little to no pollution produced.

I.C. Engine:

Output is mechanical work.

Fuel and oxidant react combustively.
Use of fossil fuels can produce significant pollution.

Some History

Fuel cell principle first discovered

by William Grove in 1839.
Grove used four large cells, each
containing hydrogen and oxygen,
to produce electric power which was
then used to split the water in the
smaller upper cell.

Commercial potential first demonstrated by NASA in the 1960s with the

usage of fuel cells on the Gemini and Apollo space flights. However, these
fuel cells were very expensive.
Fuel cell research and development has been actively taking place since the
1970s, resulting in many commercial applications ranging from low cost portable
systems for cell phones and laptops to large power systems for buildings.

Fuel Cells in Use: Stationary Systems

Fuel Cells in Use: Stationary Systems

Fuel cell system for submarine

Fuel Cells in Use: Transportation Systems

Buses are most commercially
advanced applications of fuel
cells to date.
Are currently being used by
many American and European
cities.

XCELLSiS fuel cell bus prototypes

Fuel Cells in Use: Transportation Systems

Many of the major car companies are developing fuel cell car prototypes
which should come to market during the next decade. The cars use either
pure hydrogen or methanol with an on board reformer.

Fuel Cells in Use: Hydrogen Fuel Cell System

Fuel Cells in Use: Space Systems

12 kW Space shuttle fuel cell

Weight: 120 kg
Size: 36x38x114 cm
Contains 32 cells in series

1.5 kW Apollo fuel cell

Apollo used two of these
units.

Fuel Cells in Use: Portable Systems

A laptop using a fuel cell power source

can operate for up to 20 hours on a
single charge of fuel (Courtesy: Ballard
Power Systems)

Glossary of Terms Used in Describing Fuel Cell

Technology
Electrochemical reaction: A reaction involving the transfer of electrons
from one chemical substance to another.
Electrode: An electrical terminal that conducts an electric current into or
out of a fuel cell (where the electrochemical reaction occurs).
Anode: Electrode where oxidation reaction happens (electrons are released).
Cathode: Electrode where reduction reaction occurs (electrons are acquired).
In a fuel cell, hydrogen is oxidized at the anode and oxygen reduction occurs
at the cathode.
Electrolyte: A chemical compound that conducts ions from one electrode to
the other.
Ion: An atom that carries a positive or negative charge due to the loss or gain
of an electron. Anion is a negative ion, cation is a positive ion.
An electrochemical cell consists of 2 electrodes + 1 electrolyte

Terminology (cont.)
Catalyst: A substance that participates in a reaction, increasing its rate,
but is not consumed in the reaction.
Polymer: A natural or synthetic compound made of giant molecules which
are composed of repeated links of simple molecules (monomers).
Inverter: A device used to convert direct current electricity produced by a
fuel cell to alternating current.
Reformer: A device that extracts pure hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
Stack: Individual fuel cells connected in series within a generating assembly.