Lecture Outline: Evolution of Plants and Fungi

Chapter 18
Evolution of
Plants and Fungi
Lecture Outline
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
18.1 Plants have a green algal ancestor

Multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotes
Evolved from freshwater green algae some 500
million years ago
Evidence Both green algae and plants
1. Contain chlorophylls a and b and various
accessory pigments
2. Store excess carbohydrates as starch
3. Have cellulose in their cell wall
18-2
flowers, double fertilization, endosperm, fruit
common ancestor
Flowering plants
Seed
seeds
Vascular
Gymnosperms
vascular
tissue
apical
growth
Seedless
Ferns and allies

microphylls
Lycophytes
embryo
protection
Bryophytes
Mosses
Hornworts
common
green
algal
ancestor
Liverworts
Charophytes
550
500
450
400
350
Million Years Ago (MYA)
300
250
PRESENT
18-3
Figure 18.1A The evolution of plants
Nonvascular
megaphylls
18.2 Alternation of generations life cycle

2 multicellular stages alternate
Sporophyte represents the diploid generation (2n)
Produces spores by meiosis
A spore undergoes mitosis to become a gametophyte
Gametophyte represents the haploid generation (n)

Produces gametes
In plants, eggs and sperm are produced by mitosis
A sperm and egg fuse, forming a diploid zygote that
undergoes mitosis and becomes the sporophyte
18-4
Figure 18.2 Alternation of generations

sporophyte (2n)
to
Mi
si s
zygote (2n)
sporangium (2n)
diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
MEIOSIS
haploid (n)
(n)
to
Mi
gametophyte (n)
sis
(n)
gametes
Mi
tos
is
spore (n)
18-5
18.3 Sporophyte dominance was

adaptive to a dry land environment
Plants differ as to which generation is dominant
Only the sporophyte has vascular tissue for
transporting water and nutrients
Only plants with a dominant sporophyte
generation attain significant height
18-6
Figure 18.3A The size of the gametophyte is progressively reduced as

the sporophyte becomes more dominant
spores
G
a
m
e
t
o
p
h
y
t
e
(n)
seed
spores
seed
roots
roots
roots
rhizoids
rhizoids
Moss
Fern
Gymnosperm
S
p
o
r
o
p
h
y
t
e
(2n)
Angiosperm
18-7
Reproductive Adaptation to Land Environment

Ferns are seedless vascular plants with a dominant
sporophyte
Water-dependent gametophyte makes it more difficult for
ferns and related plants to spread to and live in dry
environments
Flowering plants are seed plants with a dominant

sporophyte
All reproductive structures are protected from drying out in
the terrestrial environment
18-8
Figure 18.3B a. Archegonium in seedless plants

surface of
gametophyte
egg becomes
sporophyte embryo
a. Archegonium in seedless plants

Ed Reschke
18-9
Figure 18.3B b. Ovule in seed plants.

tissue of
sporophyte
ovule becomes
seed
egg becomes
sporophyte
embryo
b. Ovule in seed plants
Ed Reschke
18-10
Other Adaptations to the Land Environment

Spophytes have a cuticle
Covering that provides an effective barrier to water
loss, but it also limits gas exchange
Leaves have little openings called stomata (sing.,
stoma) that let carbon dioxide enter while allowing
oxygen and water to exit
18-11
Figure 18.3C Leaf structures of vascular plants

cuticle
stomata
Vascular plant leaves

Have a cuticle and stomata.
Stained photomicrograph
Of a leaf cross section
Falsely colored scanning

Electron micrograph
Of leaf surface
(left): Kingsley Stern; (right): Andrew Syred/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
18-12
Bryophytes: Non-Vascular Plants

Exs: hornworts, liverworts, and mosses
First plants to colonize land
Successfully reproduce on land because they
protect the embryo & produce wind-blown spores
No true roots, stems, or leaves no vascular
tissue Non-vascular plants
18-13
Figure 18.4A Representative bryophytes

sporophyte
archegonium
gametophyte
Hornwort
gemma cup
Liverwort female gametophyte
Moss gametophyte
(hornwort): Steven P. Lynch; (liverwort): Harold Taylor/Getty Images; (moss): Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.
18-14
In Bryophytes, the Gametophyte is

Dominant
Bryophyte reproduction
Gametophyte is the dominant generation
Female gametophyte produces eggs in archegonia,
and the male gametophyte produces flagellated
sperm in antheridia
Following fertilization, the zygote becomes a
sporophyte
Sporophyte attached to, and derives its nourishment
from, the photosynthetic gametophyte
18-15
Figure 18.4B Moss life cycle, Polytrichum sp.

3
developing
sporophyte
Developing sporophyte:
The sporophyte embryo
is retained within the
archegonium, where
it develops, becoming a
mature sporophyte.
The sporophyte:
The dependent sporophyte has a foot buried in female
gametophyte tissue, a stalk, and an upper capsule (the
sporangium), where meiosis occurs and windblown spores
are produced.
Sporangium
Mitosis
Sporophyte
stalk
zygote
diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
MEIOSIS
haploid (n)
2
Fertilization:
Flagellated sperm
produced in
antheridia swim in
external water to
archegonia, each
bearing a single egg.
1 The mature
gametophytes:
In mosses, the
dominant
gametophyte shoots
bear either antheridia
or archegonia, where
gametes are
produced by mitosis.
Spores
egg
sperm
Mitosis
foot (n)
Archegonia
archegonium
buds
Spore dispersal:
Spores are released
when they are most
likely to be
dispersed
by air currents.
Antheridia
6
antheridium
The immature
gametophyte:
A spore germinates
into the first
stage of the male
and the female
gametophytes.
Gametophytes
18-16
(top): Peter Lilja/Getty Images; (bottom): Steven P. Lynch
Plant Vascular Tissue

Vascular tissue in plants:
Xylem transports water & minerals UP in the plant.
Phloem transports nutrients DOWN in the plant.
18-17
Ferns: Seedless vascular plants

Ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns are
seedless vascular plants
Have megaphylls
Broad leaves with several strands of
vascular tissue
18-18
18.6 Ferns have large leaves

called megaphylls
Horsetails
strobilus
One genus,
Equisetum, and
approximately 25
species
About 300 MYA,
horsetails were
dominant plants and
grew as large as
modern trees
leaves
branches
Gerald & Buff Corsi/Visuals Unlimited
Figure 18.6B Horsetail (Equisetum)
18-19

called megaphylls
Whisk ferns
Psilotum and
Tmesipteris
Epiphytes
sporangium
Plants that live

on/in trees
scale
aerial stem
No leaves
root
rhizome
(Left): CABISCO/Phototake
Figure 18.6C Whisk fern (Psilotum)
18-20

called megaphylls
Ferns
11,00 species
Megaphylls
called fronds
Leaves first
appear as
fiddleheads
2 generations
separate and
independent
spores on
fertile frond
Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinamomea

frond
(undivided)
frond
(divided)
axis
leaflet
Harts tongue fern

Campyloneurum scolopendrium
Maidenhair fern,
Adiantum pedatum
(cinnamon fern): James Randklev/Getty Images; (hart's tongue): Walter H. Hodge/Peter

Arnold/Photolibrary; (maidenhair): Jeff Foott/Getty Images
Figure 18.6D Diversity of fern fronds
18-21
Figure 18.6E Fern life cycle

1
The sporophyte:
The sporophyte is
dominant in ferns.
Sori
Sporophyte
frond
Young sporophyte:
The sporophyte
embryo develops
inside an
archegonium.
As the distinctive
first leaf appears
above the
gametophyte, and
as the roots
develop below it,
the young sporophyte
becomes visible.
Dryopterus
leaflet
sporangium
Sorus
young sporophyte
on gametophyte
fiddlehead
The sporangia:
In this fern, the
sporangia are
located within sori
(sing., sorus) on
the underside of
the leaflets.
The spores:
Within a
sporangium,
meiosis occurs
and spores are
produced. When a
sporangium opens,
the spores are
released.
roots
Mitosis
zygote
Sporangium
diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
MEIOSIS
haploid (n)
5 Fertilization:
Fertilization takes
place when
moisture is
present, because
the flagellated
sperm must swim
in a film of water
from the antheridia
to eggs within
archegonia.
egg
sperm
Spores
Archegonium
Mitosis
germinating
spore
4
Antheridium
Gametophyte
(Top right): Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold/Photolibrary
The gametophyte:
A spore germinates into a
heart-shaped gametophyte,
which typically bears archegonia
at the notch and antheridia at the
tip between the rhizoids.
18-22
Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

Gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed plants
Seed contains a sporophyte generation, along
with stored food, within a protective seed coat
Ability of seeds to survive harsh conditions until
the environment is again favorable for growth
largely accounts for the dominance of seed plants
today
18-23
18.7 Most gymnosperms bear cones

on which the seeds are naked
Diversity of Gymnosperms
Four groups of living gymnosperms: cycads, ginkgoes,
gnetophytes, and conifers
All have ovules and develop seeds that are exposed
on the surface of cone scales or analogous structures
Conifers
Consist of about 575 species of trees
Many are evergreens such as pines, spruces, firs, cedars and
hemlocks
Economic Value of Conifers

Wood of conifers is used extensively in construction
18-24
Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity
18-25
Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity (Cont.)
18-26
Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity (Cont.)
18-27
Figure 18.7B Pine life cycle

1
5
The sporophyte
embryo:After
fertilization, the
ovule matures and
becomes the seed
composed of the
embryo, reserve
food, and a seed
coat. Finally, in the
fall of the second
season, the seed
cone, by
now woody and
hard, opens to
release winged
seeds. When
a seed germinates,
the sporophyte
Sporophyte
seed
Seed cones
Pollen cones
Ovule
Pollen sac
sporophyte
embryo
seed coat
seed cone scale
stored food
pollen cone scale
Seed
zygote
Fertilization:
Once a pollen grain
reaches a seed cone,
it becomes a mature
male gametophyte.
A pollen tube digests
its way slowly
toward a female
gametophyte and
discharges
nonflagellated sperm.
The fertilized
egg is
a zygote.
The seed cones:

The seed cones are
larger than the pollen
cones and are located
near the tips of higher
branches.
wing
Mitosis
The pollen cones:

Typically, the pollen
cones are quite small
and develop near the
tips of lower
branches.
microspore
mother cell
megaspore
mother cell
MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS
Megaspores:
Megaspore mother cell
in ovule undergoes
meiosis to produce
megaspores.One
megaspore will
become the
egg-producing
diploid (2n)
FERTILIZATION
haploid (n)
Pollen grain
Microspores
Mature female gametophyte
Mitosis
egg
Megaspores
Microspores:
Microspore mother
cells undergo meiosis
to produce
microspores. Each
microspore becomes a
pollen grain.
Pollination
ovule
wall
Ovule
Mitosis
Mature male gametophyte
pollen tube
pollen grain
sperm
200 m
The pollen grain:

The pollen grain has two wings and is carried by the
wind to the seed cone during pollination
(Bottom right): Phototake
18-28
HOW LIFE CHANGES
18A Carboniferous Forests

Became the Coal We Use Today
Our industrial society runs on fossil fuels, such
as coal
During Carboniferous period (>300 MYA) a great
swamp forest encompassed what is now
northern Europe, the Ukraine, and the
Appalachian Mountains in the United States.
Enormous amount of biomass
Remains became covered by sediment that changed
to sedimentary rock
With pressure, the organic material became coal
18-29
Figure 18A Swamp forest of the Carboniferous period
Fossil seed fern

(fossil fern): Sinclair Stammers/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
18-30
Figure 18A Swamp forest of the Carboniferous period (Cont.)

Fossil seed fern

club mosses
horsetail
seed fern
early gymnosperm
fern
18-31
(fossil fern): Sinclair Stammers/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc
Angiosperms: Flowering Plants

Angiosperms are flowering plants
Evolved some 200 MYA
240,000 known species
Ovules always enclosed within sporophyte tissue
Angiosperm Diversity
Monocots One cotyledon
Eudicots Two cotyledons
Cotyledons seed leaves with nutrients that nourish
the embryo
18-32
Figure 18.8A Generalized flower

stigma
anther
filament
style
stamens
ovary
pollen
tube
ovule
carpel
receptacle
petals (corolla)
sepals (calyx)
18-33
Figure 18.8B Flowering plant life cycle

Stamen
anther
filament
6 The sporophyte embryo:
The embryo within a seed
is the immature sporophyte.
When a seed germinates,
growth and differentiation
produce the mature
sporophyte of a flowering
plant.
5 The seed:
The ovule now develops into
the seed, which contains an
embryo and food enclosed
by a protective seed coat.
The wall of the ovary and
sometimes adjacent parts
develop into a fruit that
surrounds the seed(s).
stigma
style
ovary
ovule
The carpel:
The ovary at the base of a
carpel contains one or more
ovules. The contents of an
ovule change during the
flowering plant life cycle.
1 The stamen:
An anther at the top of each
stamen has four pollen sacs.
Mitosis
stigma
receptacle
Sporophyte
fruit
(mature ovary)
seed
(mature ovule)
style
Anther
Carpel
ovule
seed coat
ovary
pollen
sac
sporophyte embryo
endosperm (3n)
microspore
mother cell
Seed
FERTILIZATION
diploid (2n)
haploid (n)
(mature male gametophyte)
ovule wall
polar nuclei
sperm
egg
Pollination
pollen
tube
sperm
Megaspores
polar nuclei
egg
Double Fertilization
degenerating
megaspores
Ovule
Embryo sac
(mature female gametophyte)
3 The mature male gametophyte:
A p[ollen grain that lands on the carpel of the same type
of plant germinates and produces a pollen tube,
which delivers two nonflagellated sperm to the female
gametophyte. A fully germinated pollen grain is the
mature male gametophyte.
Microspores
MEIOSIS
is
tos
Mi
pollen tube
megaspore
mother cell
MEIOSIS
Pollen grain
is
tos
Mi
4 Double fertilization:
On reaching the ovule, the
pollen tube discharges the
sperm. One of the two sperm
migrates to and fertilizes the
egg, forming a zygote; the
other unites with the two
polar nuclei, producing a 3n
(triploid) endosperm nucleus.
The endosperm nucleus
divides to form endosperm,
food for the developing plant.
Carpel
The mature female gametophyte:

The ovule now contains the mature female
gametophyte (embryo sac), which typically consists of
eight haploid nuclei embedded in a mass of cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm differentiates into cells, one of which is
an egg and another of which contains two polar nuclei.
2 Microspores:
Microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce
microspores. Each microspore becomes a pollen grain.
Megaspores:
Megaspore mother cell inside ovule undergoes meiosis to
produce megaspores. One megaspore will become the
egg-producing female gametophyte.
18-34
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
18B Flowering plants provide

many services
Humans derive most of their sustenance from three
flowering plants
Wheat
First cultivated in the Middle East about 8000 B.C.
Thought to be one of the earliest cultivated plants
Corn
Maize first cultivated in Central America about 7,000 years ago
Rice
Originated several thousand years ago in southeastern Asia,
where it grew in swamps
About 50% of all pharmaceuticals come from plants

18-35
Figure 18B.1 Species of grains important to humans

grain head
grain head
Wheat plants,Triticum
ear
Corn plants, Zea
Rice plants, Oryza
(wheat): Creatas Images RF; (corn plants, rice plant): Corbis RF; (ear of corn): Dorling Kindersley/Getty RF; (rice grains): Dex Image/Getty RF; Corbis
RF
18-36
Figure 18B.2 Uses of plants
18-37
Fungi differ from plants & animals

Structurally diverse group of eukaryotes
Strict Heterotrophs
Unlike animals, fungi release digestive enzymes into
the external environment and digest their food outside
the body
Most are saprotrophs decomposers

Body of most fungi made of a mass of filaments
(hypha) called a mycelium
Cell walls contain chitin
18-38
Figure 18.9A
Fungal mycelia
and hyphae
nuclei
septum
cell wall
a. Fungal mycelia on a corn tortilla

(a): Gary R. Robinson/Visuals Unlimited
septate
nonseptate
hypha
hypha
b. Cell structure of hyphae
18-39
18.10 Fungi have mutualistic

relationships with algae and plants
In a mutualistic relationship, two different
species live together and help each other out
Mycorrhizal fungi form mutualistic relationships
(mycorrhizae) with the roots of most plants
Lichen a mutualistic association between a fungus
and a green algae
18-40
Figure 18.10 Lichen structure and examples

algal reproductive unit

cell
fungal
hyphae
sac fungi
reproductive
cups
Crustose lichen
Foliose lichen, Xanthoparmelia
Fruticose lichen, Cladonia
(foliose): Kerry T. Givens; (fruticose): Stephen Sharnoff/Visuals Unlimited
18-41
18.11 Land fungi

occur in
three main
groups
4
zygospore
FERTILIZATION
2n
n
MEIOSIS
Sexual
reproduction
Zygospore Fungi
sporangium
Mainly saprotrophs,
but some are
parasites
Asexual
reproduction
germinating
spores
mycelium
(top left): Runk/Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography
Figure 18.11A
Black bread mold,
Rhizopus stolonifer
18-42
18.11 Land fungi occur in

three main groups
Sac Fungi
ascocarp
Nearly 75% of all

described fungal
species
ascocarp
Cup fungi
Ex: Yeast 1 celled

fungi.
nuclear
fusion zygote
Morel
ascospores
(2n) meiosis
mature
ascus
dikaryotic
hyphae
+ mating type (n)
spore
mating type (n)

spore
male organ
female organ
Ascocarp of the cup fungus Sarcoscypha
(cup fungi): Felix Labhardt/Getty RF; (morel): Robert Marien/Corbis RF18-43
Figure 18.11B Sexual reproduction in sac fungi
Figure 18.11C Asexual reproductive structures in sac fungi

conidia
a.
budding
yeast cell
b.
a: David Philips/Visuals Unlimited; b: David Philips/Visuals Unlimited;
18-44
nuclei in
basidium
18.11 Land fungi

occur in
three main groups
Club Fungi
fusion meiosis
spores
gill of
mushroom
basidiocarp
Sexual reproduction
Figure 18.11D Sexual reproduction in club fungi
Name comes from the

reproductive structure,
the basidium
The basidia are
located within a
basidiocarp
When you eat a
mushroom, you are
eating a basidiocarp
18-45
Mushroom
Figure 18.11D Sexual

reproduction in club fungi
involves a basidiocarp of
which three types are
shown (Cont.)
Shelf fungi
Gaint puffball
(mushroom): Biophoto Assoc./Photo Researchers, Inc.; (shelf fungi): Inga Spence; (puffball): L. West/Photo Researchers, Inc
18-46
HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES
18.15 Land Fungi Have Economic

and Medical Importance
Economic Importance
Help produce medicines and many foods
Mold Penicillium was original source of penicillin
Excellent low-calorie meat substitute containing lots of vitamins

Fungal pathogens are a major concern for farmers
Medical Importance
Certain mushrooms are poisonous
Mycoses are diseases caused by fungi
3 levels of infection
Cutaneous-skin
Subcutaneous-affects a deeper level
Systemic-spread through body via blood
18-47
Figure 18C.1 Plant fungal disease
18-48
Figure 18C.2 Human fungal diseases
back of throat
tongue
a. Ringworm
b.Athletes foot
c. Thrush
John Hadfield/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; CMSP/Getty Images; Courtesy of the Centers for Diseare Control and Prevention
18-49
Connecting the Concepts:

Chapter 18
Plants
Trend towards gametophyte dependence on a
sporophyte with large leaves and vascular tissue
Angiosperms are the most widely dispersed of the
land plants
Fungi
Adapted to the land environment because they
produce windblown spores.
18-50

Lecture Outline: Evolution of Plants and Fungi

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Chapter 18

18.1 Plants have a green algal ancestor

flowers, double fertilization, endosperm, fruit

Ferns and allies

Figure 18.1A The evolution of plants

18.2 Alternation of generations life cycle

Gametophyte represents the haploid generation (n)

Figure 18.2 Alternation of generations

18.3 Sporophyte dominance was

Figure 18.3A The size of the gametophyte is progressively reduced as

Reproductive Adaptation to Land Environment

Flowering plants are seed plants with a dominant

Figure 18.3B a. Archegonium in seedless plants

a. Archegonium in seedless plants

Figure 18.3B b. Ovule in seed plants.

b. Ovule in seed plants

Other Adaptations to the Land Environment

Figure 18.3C Leaf structures of vascular plants

Vascular plant leaves

Falsely colored scanning

Bryophytes: Non-Vascular Plants

Figure 18.4A Representative bryophytes

In Bryophytes, the Gametophyte is

Figure 18.4B Moss life cycle, Polytrichum sp.

Plant Vascular Tissue

Ferns: Seedless vascular plants

18.6 Ferns have large leaves

Figure 18.6B Horsetail (Equisetum)

18.6 Ferns have large leaves

Plants that live

Figure 18.6C Whisk fern (Psilotum)

18.6 Ferns have large leaves

Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinamomea

Harts tongue fern

(cinnamon fern): James Randklev/Getty Images; (hart's tongue): Walter H. Hodge/Peter

Figure 18.6D Diversity of fern fronds

Figure 18.6E Fern life cycle

(Top right): Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold/Photolibrary

Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

18.7 Most gymnosperms bear cones

Economic Value of Conifers

Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity

Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity (Cont.)

Figure 18.7A Gymnosperm diversity (Cont.)

Figure 18.7B Pine life cycle

seed cone scale

pollen cone scale

The seed cones:

The pollen cones:

Mature female gametophyte

The pollen grain:

(Bottom right): Phototake

HOW LIFE CHANGES

18A Carboniferous Forests

Figure 18A Swamp forest of the Carboniferous period

Fossil seed fern

Figure 18A Swamp forest of the Carboniferous period (Cont.)

Fossil seed fern

Angiosperms: Flowering Plants

Figure 18.8A Generalized flower

Figure 18.8B Flowering plant life cycle

The mature female gametophyte: