Argument Analysis

An

argument is a set of assertions,

one of which is intended to follow
from or be supported by the
other(s).
Since the pursuit of happiness
requires health and knowledge, and
the pursuit of happiness is a
Constitutional right, access to
health care and education is a
constitutional right.

Identifying Arguments
A

passage
contains an
argument when
there is an
attempt to
establish that a
claim is true by
offering reasons
or evidence for
its truth.

Every

argument
contains both a
factual claim (or
claims, the
premises) and an
inferential claim
(a claim about
what the facts
imply, the
conclusion).

Argument or nonargument?
The

fool has said in his heart,

there is no God. (Psalms 14.1)
If God does not exist, everything is
permitted. (Ivan Karamazov)
The house burned down because
the Halogen bulb was touching the
drapes.
You should support the president
because we need to appear united.

Argument Analysis
Premises:

The
claims that offer
reasons or
evidence, facts
appealed to for
support.
Conclusion: The
claim that the
premises are
intended to
establish.

Since

hiring a
public relations
firm costs
thousands of
dollars that could
be used for
charitable causes,
it follows that the
Catholic Church
should not hire a
public relations
firm.

Signal Words
Conclusion

Signals:
Therefore; so;
hence; thus;
consequently; it
follows that;
accordingly; etc.
Pedophiles cant be
rehabilitated,
therefore, they
should not be
released from
prison.

Premise

signals:
Since; for;
because;
inasmuch as; etc.
Since spanking
teaches children
to use violence to
resolve conflict,
parents should
not spank their
children.

Specific Premise Signals

Numbering

devices:
first, in the second
place, thirdly, etc.
Cumulative
devices:
furthermore,
moreover, in
addition, also, etc.
Contrastive
devices: however;
nevertheless, on
the contrary, etc.

In

opposing prayer
in public schools, I
am not deserting
my God. On the
contrary, it is
possible I am thus
serving my God,
who I believe wants
his children to pray
to him of their own
freewill and not
because they are
forced. (P. Walker)

Arguments without signals

In

arguments without signal words,

the inferential claim is implicit.
It is not obvious that one must be
capable of being a moral agent
before one can be considered an
object of moral concern. We certainly
consider children and the insane to
fall within the scope of moral concern
even though we do not hold them
responsible or consider them to be
moral agents. (B.E. Rollin)

Argument or nonargument?

Neither a borrower nor lender be.

For loan oft loses both itself and
friend, and borrowing dulls the edge
of husbandry. (Shakespeare)
Lying is not only saying what is not
true. It is also and especially saying
more than is true, and, as far as the
human heart is concerned, saying
more than one feels. (Albert
Camus)

Argument?
A

person never
becomes truly self
reliant. Even
though he deals
effectively with
things, he is
necessarily
dependent upon
those who taught
him so. They have
selected what he is
dependent upon.
(B.F. Skinner)

Check it out!

Arguments?
Just

because one
says he has a
weapon... it still
does not give the
officers the right to
use deadly force
unless they can
reasonably assume
that deadly force is
being used upon
them." Jeffrey M.
Galen

When a person decides to

engage officers in a pursuit,
refuses police orders to end
the threat they are posing
to the safety of officers and
the public, tells the police
that they have a gun, exits
a vehicle and takes an
aggressive shooting stance,
extends their arms out and
points an unknown object
at the officers, they are
subjecting themselves to
the consequences of their
actions, which may include
being shot." Tyler Izen

Incompletely Stated
Arguments

Sometimes a premise or conclusion

is assumed without being explicitly
stated.
Here is a single conditional
statement that assumes a premise and
a conclusion: If you arent willing to steal
to get into Harvard, then you should not
be willing to cheat to get in.
If you tell her he is having an affair, she
may end up blaming you, and you dont
want that to happen.

Unexpressed Premises
Carlos

wont
become a great
golfer, he focuses
too much on
technique.
You shouldnt use
immoral means to
get the things you
want in life. It
may come back to
haunt you later.

should spend
more time
studying, since it
is either that or
prepare myself to
accept failure.
Cheating is
immoral because
you dont want to
live in a society of
cheaters.

Premise Support
Sometimes

an argument contains a
sub-argument to support a premise.
Capital punishment should be used
only if there is no alternative means of
protecting society. But life without the
possibility of parole is an alternative.
Keeping murderers locked
securely away for life protects
society as well. So, capital
punishment should not be used.

Casting Arguments
A

method of
diagramming
arguments to
exhibit their
logical structure.
Premises may
provide
independent or
interdependent
support for the
conclusion.

It

is raining. You
are sick. You
hate Yanni. So,
you should not go
to the concert.
It is raining and
the concert is
outdoors, so it
will probably be
canceled.

Casting Technique
Bracket

each assertion.
Number each assertion.
Express the relationships between
the assertions in a tree diagram,
with conclusion on top.
[If

you cheat on the exam you have

sacrificed character for career.] (1) [You
should not sacrifice character for
career.] (2) [So, you should not cheat on
the exam.] (3)

Casting Example
[The

feds raised interest rates] (1)

[This means that credit card rates
and mortgage rates will
increase.] (2) [We can barely pay
our bills as it is.] (3) Youd better
1 supports 2
find another job, dear.]
2 and 3 together
are needed to
support 4
3

Casting example 2
[There

is no doubt
that humans
commonly
hallucinate.] (1)
[Theres
considerable doubt
about whether
aliens exist, abduct,
or molest us.] (2) [So
reports of alien
abduction are
probably imagined]
(3)

1 and 2 together support

3

Argument Casting
[The

elusive Jesus is a standard feature in the

appearance stories] 1 [Jesus is elusive] 2
[because he was not flesh and blood,] 3 [he was
not restricted by space,] 4 [and his appearances
took place over an extended period.] 5
[However, as time passed and the tradition
grew, the reported appearances become more
palpable, more corporeal.] 6 [They gradually
lose their luminous quality and take on aspects
of a resuscitated corpse.] 7 [For these reasons,
the stories of the appearances need to be
examined closely for clues to their history and
function.] 8 (Robert Funk)

Cast of Funks Argument

8

3
4

Cast this!
Since

murderers rarely consider the

possibility of getting caught, the threat
of capital punishment does not deter
them. Since justice requires only that
the punishment fit the crime, not that it
take a specific form, capital punishment
is not required by justice. And, since
mandatory appeals are more costly than
a life sentence, capital punishment does
not save money. Capital punishment,
therefore, is bad public policy.

Cast the Argument

The

claim that the effectiveness of

prayer in medical treatment is
evidence of supernatural intervention
is dubious. Quiet meditation calms the
patient. The belief that others care
about the patients welfare may also
reduce stress. Developing a positive,
hopeful outlook improves prognosis.
None of these psychological benefits
of prayer requires a supernatural
explanation.