Learning

Learning is not attained by chance;

it must be sought for with ardor and
attended to with diligence.
Abigail Adams

Learning

Relatively permanent change in knowledge

or behavior resulting from experience
4 types of learning
Habituation
Classical

conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
They all operate under the same principle
learning by association

Habituation
Tendency to become familiar with a stimulus
merely as a result of repeated exposure
Orienting

reflex

Eyes

widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats

faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological
arousal
Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus
we habituate

Primitive form of learning

Found

in all organisms

Decreases the power of reward to motivate

Classical Conditioning
A tendency to connect events that occur
together in time and space
Pavlov (1849-1936)

Psychic secretions led to classical conditioning,

though unintentionally
A stimulus comes to elicit a response that it doesnt
normally elicit

How does this come about?

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition
It

takes some number of paired trials for the

learning (or acquisition) of a CR
Key factors: order and timing of presentation

Extinction
The

elimination of a learned response by

removal of the US or reinforcement

Stimulus Generalization
The

tendency to respond to a stimulus that is

similar to the CS

Stimulus generalization

I dont care if
she is a tape
dispenser.
I love her!

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition

It takes some number of paired trials for the

learning (or acquisition) of a CR
Key factors: order and timing of presentation

Extinction

The elimination of a learned response by removal of

the US or reinforcement

Generalization

The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar

to the CS

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli

Things to keep in mind

Classical associate 2 things, thus
anticipate events
Lightening

. . . . Thunder!

Unconditioned means unlearned

Associations

should be natural

Response can be the same, but isnt always

Contingency CS should precede UCS
Simultaneous

pairing takes longer and isnt as

powerful
Backwards pairing rarely works

Things to keep in mind

Single-trial (or minimal-trial) learning
Phobias
Little

Taste

Albert

aversions

Cancer

patients & chemotherapy

Applying Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Fears

We have preferences for some fears

They are learned more quickly and the associations last

longer, even during the extinction phase

Social Behaviors

People form strong positive and negative attitudes

toward neutral objects by virtue of their links to
emotionally charged stimuli

Immune System

Preliminary research shows that we can slow/bolster

the immune system through classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning
Associate

response with its consequence

Behavior becomes more or less probable
depending on its consequences

Law of effect
Responses

followed by positive outcomes are

repeated whereas those followed by negative
outcomes are not

Operant Conditioning
Skinner boxes
Behavioral contingencies
Positive

reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment

Reinforcement
Reinforcer
A

consequence that increases the likelihood that

behavior will occur again

Positive reinforcement
Providing

a positive stimulus
Studying earns you a good grade
Premack principle

More probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for

less probable behavior

Negative reinforcement
Removing

an aversive stimulus
Fastening our seatbelts to turn of the buzzer

Punishment
Punishment
A

consequence that decreases the likelihood

that behavior will occur again

Positive punisher
Providing

an aversive stimulus
Scolding a child, shocking a lab rat for
pressing the response lever

Negative punisher
Removing

a positive stimulus
Taking food away from a hungry rat

Shaping and Extinction

Shaping

Encouraging a new behavior by reinforcing successive

approximations
This is how trainers get animals to do new tricks

Extinction

As in classical conditioning, failure to reward the

learned behavior will eventually lead to a cessation of
that behavior
If a vending machine stops giving you a Coke, youll
stop putting your money into it

Things to keep in mind . . .

Primary vs. secondary reinforcers
Primary

stimuli that are innately reinforcing

Secondary stimuli that are rewarding
because of their association with primary
reinforcers

Why dont the behaviors

just keep occurring?
Discriminative

stimulus
Relative degree of satiation

Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous
Learning

occurs rapidly
Subject to rapid extinction when discontinued

Partial
Fixed-Interval

(FI)
Variable-Interval (VI)
Fixed-Ratio (FR)
Variable-Ratio (VR)

Behavioral Contingencies
Prob. of
behavior

Example

Increase

Study and
get an A

Increase

Go to dentist;
filling removes
pain

Type

Consequence

Positive
reinforce

Add
desirable

Negative
reinforce

Remove
undesirabl
e

Extinction

Fail to add
desirable

Decrease

Say hi. No
response.
Stop saying hi

Add
Positive
undesirabl
Punishment
e

Decrease

Hangover

Negative

Remove

Get benched

Observational Learning
Not all learning comes from direct
experience!
Sometimes we watch others & see what
happens
Older

siblings, peers, & parents

Vicarious rewards & punishments
Also: intrinsic rewards & punishments

Albert Bandura
Bobo doll studies
2 stages of observational learning
Acquisition
Performance

4 steps of observational learning

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation