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Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Implementation of
Connection-Oriented Service
ISPs equipment
Comparison of Virtual-Circuit
and Datagram Networks
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Modem: a device that modulates a digital signal onto analog signal for transmission over
telephone lines.
Repeater: Re-generates the signal again.
Switches/routers/gateways (cont.)
Mainly from the point of software, i.e., containing functions of lower three layers
There are some requirements for hardware such as speed, disk, memory, multiple
interfaces.
Bridge: used to connect multiple similar LANs.
Circuit switch, used in telephone networks
Packet switch/router/gateway:
Generally consider them as the same meaning
Packet switch deals with a uniform routing procedure, within one homogenous
network, one pair of data link and physical layer
Router/gateway deals with routing in multiple heterogeneous networks, more
than one pair of data link and physical layers
Gateway : used to connect multiple different LANs
DEVICES :
1. Hub, a distributor that has a lot of ports
which connected to computers.
2. Switches, like a hub but it transmit packets to
it destination
Network Devices
Application Layer
Application gateway
Transport Layer
Transport gateway
Network Layer
Physical Layer
Routing Algorithms
Optimality principle
Shortest path algorithm
Flooding
Distance vector routing
Link state routing
Routing in ad hoc networks
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Broadcast routing
Multicast routing
Anycast routing
Routing for mobile hosts
Routing in ad hoc networks
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
The first five steps used in computing the shortest path from A
to D. The arrows indicate the working node
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
(a) A network.
(b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
(a) A network. (b) The link state packets for this network.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Hierarchical Routing
Hierarchical routing.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Broadcast Routing
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
(a) A network. (b) A spanning tree for the leftmost router. (c) A
multicast tree for group 1. (d) A multicast tree for group 2.
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
Anycast Routing
CONGESTIONCONTROL
Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the
networkthe number of packets sent to the network
is greater than the capacity of the networkthe
number of packets a network can handle.
Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and
techniques to control the congestion and keep the load
below the capacity.
Congestion Control
CONGESTIONCONTROL
Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms
that can either prevent congestion, before it happens, or
remove congestion, after it has happened.
In general, we can divide congestion control mechanisms
into two broad categories:
1.open-loop congestion control (prevention)
2.closed-loop congestion control (removal).
Warning Bit
Choke Packets
Load Shedding
QUALITYOFSERVICE
Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking issue
that can be defined as something a flow seeks to
attain.
TECHNIQUESTOIMPROVEQoS
Scheduling
Traffic Shaping
Resource Reservation
Admission Control
Traffic Shaping
The host injects one packet per clock tick onto the
network. This results in a uniform flow of packets,
smoothing out bursts and reducing congestion.
When packets are the same size (as in ATM cells), the one
packet per tick is okay. For variable length packets though,
it is better to allow a fixed number of bytes per tick. E.g.
1024 bytes per tick will allow one 1024-byte packet or two
512-byte packets or four 256-byte packets on 1 tick.
5-34
(a) Before.
(b) After.
Note
Note
5.1 SUBNETTING
The organization has two-level hierarchical addressing, but it cannot have more than one
physical network./ The host cannot be organized into groups, and all of the hosts are at
the same level./ The organization has one network with many hosts.
One solution to this problem is subnetting, the further division of a network into smaller
networks called subnetworks.
The router R1 uses the first two octet(141.14)as the netid, the third
octet(2) as the subnetid, and the fourth octet(21) as the hostid.
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Masking is a process that extracts the address of the physical network from an
IP address.
Masking can be done whether we have subnetting or not.
Not subnetted the network: Masking extracts the network address an IP
address.
Subnetted the network: Masking extracts the subnetwork address an IP
address.
In masking, we perform a mathematical operation on a 32-bit IP address at the
bit level using another 32-bit number called the mask.
To get the network or subnetwork address, we must apply the bit-wise-and
operation on the IP address an the mask.
The part of the mask containing 1s defines the netid(network portion) or
combination of netid and subnetid(subnetwork portion), The part of the mask
containing 0s defines the hostid.
Figure 5-14
Masks in example 3
# of Bits
Incrementing
Value
128
64
32
16
Subnet Mask
128
192
224
240
248
252
254
255
14
30
62
126
254
# of Networks(2n- 0
2)
( Example)
An organization with a class C address and needs to have 5 subnets with the
following number of hosts: 60, 60, 60, 30, 30.
(Solution)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The site cannot use a subnet mask with only 2 bits in the subnet section
because this allows only 4 subnetworks each 62 hosts(256/4 2 = 62),
(22<5<23)
Nor can the site use a subnet mask with 3 bits in the subnet section because
this allows 8 subnetworks each with 30 hosts(256/8 2 30).
(Variable length subnetting ) / The router uses 2 different masks, one applied
after the other.
It first uses the masks with 26 1s(11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000 or
255.255.255.192) to divide the network into 4 subnets.
Then it applies the mask with 27 1s (11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or 255.255.255.224) to one of the subnets to divide it into two smaller subnets.
Suppernet Mask
( Example)
With the supernet mask of 255.255.252.0 we can have 4 class C address combined
into one supernetwork.
If we choose the first address to be X.Y.32.0, the other three addresses are X.Y.33.0,
X.Y.34.0, and X.Y.35.0.
Whenever the router receives a packet, it applies the supernet mask to the destination
address and compares the result to the lowest address. If the result and the lowest
address are the same, the packet belongs to the supernet.
210 = 1024
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However , when these class C addresses are entered into the routing table, each
occupies one entry in the routing table./ 256 entries in the routing table.
In this technique, instead of entering each single class C address with its
corresponding default mask(255.255.255.0), the router can use the supernet mask
and the lowest network address in the group.
Internetworking
Tunneling (1)
Tunneling (2)
(a)Transparent fragmentation.
(b)Nontransparent fragmentation
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