Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Introduction
Basic components of a typical pipe system include pipes, fittings, valves, pumps or
turbines.
Even simple pipe systems are quite complex in terms of analytical considerations.
Exact analysis of the simplest pipe flow topics (such as laminar flow in long,
straight, constant diameter pipes) and dimensional analysis considerations
combined with experimental results for the other pipe flow topics will be used.
Unless otherwise specified, we will assume that the conduit is round (pipe).
For open-channel flow (b), gravity alone is the driving force water flows down a
hill.
For pipe flow (a), gravity may be important, but the main driving force is a pressure
gradient along the pipe.
For turbulent flow predominant component of velocity is also along the pipe, but it
is unsteady (random) and accompanied by random components normal to the pipe
axis, V = ui + vj + wk (figure).
Pipe flow characteristics are dependent on the value of the Reynolds number
Re
VD
Reynolds number range for which laminar, transitional, or turbulent pipe flows are
obtained cannot be precisely given.
Region of flow near where fluid enters the pipe is termed the entrance region
Fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform velocity profile at section (1).
As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause it to stick to the pipe
wall (no-sip condition). Boundary layer in which viscous effects are important is
produced along the wall. Initial velocity profile changes with distance along pipe,
x.
Beyond section (2) velocity profile does not vary with x. Boundary layer has grown
in thickness to completely fill the pipe.
For fluid outside the boundary layer (within inviscid core) viscous effects are
negligible
le
0.06 Re for laminar flow
D
le
16
4.4 Re
for turbulent flow
D
Fully developed flow is interrupted by bend, valves etc. Beyond the interruption
flow gradually begins its return to its fully developed character.
Nonzero pressure gradient is a result of viscous effects (if viscosity were zero,
pressure would not vary with x). Work done by pressure forces is needed to
overcome the viscous dissipation of energy through the fluid.
In fully developed flow region viscous force exactly balances pressure force (fluid
flows with no acceleration).
Magnitude of the pressure gradient, p/x, is larger in the entrance region than in
the fully developed region, where it is constant, p/x = p/l < 0 (figure)
Laminar flow differs from turbulent due to different nature of shear stress in
laminar and turbulent flows.
Velocity profile in fully developed flow is the same at any cross section of the pipe.
If velocity profile is known, other flow information such as pressure drop, head
loss, flowrate and the like can be obtained.
Details of the velocity profiles are different for laminar and turbulent flows.
Equation for velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow (and other important
results) can be derived:
from F = ma applied directly to fluid element,
from Navier-Stokes equations of motion,
from dimensional analysis.
Velocity variation in radial direction, combined with fluid viscosity, produces shear
stress
If gravity force is neglected, the pressure varies only in x direction. If pressure
decreases in x direction, then
p2 p1 p
p 0
l
r
Basic pipe flow is governed by a balance between viscous and pressure forces.
(a)
(b)
(c)
du
dr
(d)
16 l
2r
1
D
2r
V c 1
D
(e)
wD
r
u r
1
4
R
(f)
Volume flowrate:
Q
R 2Vc
udA
2
(g)
Average velocity
Q Vc pD 2
V
A 2 32 l
back
(h)
D 4 p
Q
128 l
(i)
p l sin D 4
Q
128 l
32 lV
D2
1
V 2
2
32 l
1
V 2
2
64
VD
64
l
l
Re
D
D
l V 2
p f
D 2
f p D l
D2
64
Re
V 2
2
or
8 w
V 2
2g
2g
where kinetic energy coefficient accounts for nonuniform velocity profile. For fully
developed flow 1 = 2 and
With
p l sin 2
l
r
p1
p2
z2 hL
1
hL
2 l 4l w
r
D
Head loss in a pipe is a result of the viscous shear stress on the wall
16
2r
wD
r
u r
1
4
R
Vc pD 2
V
2 32 l
Poiseuilles law
D 4 p
Q
128 l
Head loss
hL
2 l 4l w
r
D
p l sin D 4
Q
128 l
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe occurs at 2100 < Re < 4000
1
T
t0 T
t0
u x, y, z, t dt
The fluctuating part of the velocity, u is that time-varying portion that differs from the
average value
u u u
or
u u u
more
details
du
dy
du
?
dy
du
dy
du
?
dy
du
dy
These eddies range in size from very small to fairly large diameter. They move
about randomly, conveying mass with an average velocity u u y
Eddy structure greatly promotes mixing within the fluid and greatly increases
transport of x momentum across the plane A-A.
Thus, finite parcels of fluid (not individual molecules as in laminar flow) are
randomly transported across this plane, resulting an a relatively large shear stress.
Random velocity components that account for this momentum transfer (hence, the
sear force) are u (for the x component of velocity) and v (for the rate of mass
transfer crossing the plane).
du
u v lam turb
dy
If flow is laminar, than u v 0, and above equation reduces to laminar shear stress
For turbulent flow it is found that turbulent shear stress, turb u v, is positive. Hence,
shear stress is greater in turbulent flow than in laminar flow.
Structure of turbulent flow in a pipe. (a) Shear stress. (b) Average velocity
more...
VD l
p
, ,
1
2
V
D D
2
Re,
1
2
D
D
2
With
where
f p D l V 2 2
f Re,
D
This equation, called the Darcy-Weisbach equation, is valid for any fully developed,
steady, incompressible pipe flow whether pipe is horizontal or on a hill.
Friction Factor
Functional dependence of friction factor, f, on Reynolds number and relative
roughness is obtained from experiments conducted by J. Nikuradse in 1933.
Original data of Nikuradse were correlated by L.F. Moody and C.F. Colebrook and
presented in Moody chart and Colebrook formula
D
1
2.51
2.0 log
3.7
f
Re f
Typical roughness values for various pipe surfaces are given in table
Example 8.5 Air under standard conditions flow through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn
tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such conditions the flow would
normally be turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to
the flow (the entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not
vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a) Determine the pressure
drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if
the low is turbulent.
Example 8.5 Air under standard conditions flow through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn
tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such conditions the flow would
normally be turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to
the flow (the entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not
vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a) Determine the pressure
drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if
the low is turbulent.
Solution With density and viscosity known, Reynolds number:
Re VD 13700
(a) If the flow were laminar, then f = 64/Re = 0.00467, and the pressure drop:
l V 2
p f
0.179 kPa
D 2
Example 8.5 Air under standard conditions flow through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn
tubing with an average velocity of V = 50 m/s. For such conditions the flow would
normally be turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to
the flow (the entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust free, the tube does not
vibrate, etc.), it may be possible to maintain laminar flow. (a) Determine the pressure
drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar. (b) Repeat the calculations if
the low is turbulent.
Solution With density and viscosity known, Reynolds number:
Re VD 13700
(a) If the flow were laminar, then f = 64/Re = 0.00467, and the pressure drop:
l V 2
p f
0.179 kPa
D 2
(b) If the flow were turbulent, then from table = 0.0015 mm so that /D = 0.000375.
From Moody chart, with Re = 1,37x104 and /D = 0.000375, f = 0.028. Pressure drop:
l V 2
p f
1.076 kPa
D 2
p 43.7 kN/m 2
(1)
h1
p 43.7 kN/m 2
h2
(2)
(1)
Answer
p 43.7 kN/m 2
h 18.5 m
(2)
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
Losses occur in straight pipes (major losses) and pipe system components (minor
losses)
Major losses can be calculated by use of friction factor obtained from Moody chart
Minor losses are given in terms of loss coefficient, which is defined as
KL
hL
p
1
2
V
V 2 2g
2
V 2
p K L
2
and head loss
V2
hL K L
2g
Minor Losses
In most cases of practical interest the loss coefficients for components are function of
geometry
K L geometry
Minor losses are sometimes given in terms of an equivalent length, leq
In this terminology, head loss through component is given in terms of the equivalent
length of pipe that would produce the same head loss as the component. That is
leq V 2
V2
hL K L
f
2g
D 2g
or
leq
KL D
f
Minor Losses
Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient. (a) Reentrant, KL = 0.8, (b) sharp-edged, KL =
0.5, (c) slightly rounded, KL = 0.2, well-rounded, KL = 0.04
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient. (a) Reentrant, KL = 1.0, (b) sharp-edged, KL = 1.0,
(c) slightly rounded, KL = 1.0, well-rounded, KL = 1.0
Minor Losses
Minor Losses
Noncircular Conduits
Noncircular duct calculations are based on hydraulic diameter
Noncircular duct
Dh
4A
P
Noncircular Conduits
Fully Developed Laminar Flow
Friction factor
f
C
Re h
where constant C depends on the shape of the duct, and Reh is based on hydraulic
diameter
Re h
VDh
Hydraulic diameter is also used in definition of relative roughness, /Dh , and head loss
l V2
hL f
Dh 2 g
Noncircular Conduits
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Calculations for fully developed turbulent flow in ducts of noncircular cross section
are usually carried out by using the Moody chart data for round pipes with the
diameter replaced by the hydraulic diameter and the Reynolds number based on the
hydraulic diameter.
Such calculations are usually accurate to within about 15%.
If grater accuracy is needed, a more detailed analysis based on the specific geometry
on interest is needed
END
Supplementary slides
back
Turbulent Flow
Time average of the fluctuations is zero
u
1
T
t0 T
t0
u u dt
1
T
t0 T
t0
udt
u
2
1
T
t0 T
t0
dt 0
back
t0 T
t0
udt
1
Tu Tu 0
T
u*
v
In overlap region
yu *
u
2.5ln
5.0
*
u
v
back
1
n
back
back
back
Moody Chart
back
back
back
Turbulent Flow