Chapter Four

The research process

Theoretical framework and
hypothesis development
BY
RAJA. MAZHAR HAMEED
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The need for a theoretical

framework
A theoretical framework is the
foundation of hypotheticodeductive research.
Represents your believes on how
certain phenomena are related to
each other.

The process of building a theoretical framework

includes:

1. Introducing definitions of the

concept or variable in your
model.
2. Developing a conceptual model
that provides a descriptive
representation of your theory
3. Coming up with a theory that
provides an explanation for
relationships between the
variable in your model.

Variables:
A variable is anything that can
take on differing or varying
values.
Examples of variables are:
production units, absenteeism
and motivation.

Types of variables :
1- Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the
variable of primary interest to the
researcher. Through the analysis
of the dependent variable is
possible to find answers or
solutions to the problem

Types of variables :
2- Independent variable
The independent variable is generally
conjectured (an opinion or idea formed
without proof or sufficient evidence) that an
independent variable is one that influences
the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way. That is, when the independent
variable is present, the dependent variable is
also present, and with each unit of increase in
the independent variable, there is an increase
or decrease in the dependent variable.
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Types of variables :
3- Moderating variable
The moderating variable is the
presence of a third variable that
modifies the relationship between
the independent and the
dependent variables.

Types of variables :
4- Mediating variable
The mediating variable is one that surfaces
between the time the independent variable
start operating to influence the dependent
variable and the time their impact is felt
on it. The Mediating variable surfaces as a
function of the independent variable
operating in any situation, and helps to
conceptualize and explain the influence of
the independent variable on the dependent
variable.
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Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework is the foundation on which
the entire research project is based.
Variables are relevant to the problem situation and
identified through; interviews, observations and
literature review.
Experience and intuition also guide the development
of theoretical framework after identifying the
appropriate variable, the next step is to elaborate the
network of associations among the variables, so that
relevant hypotheses can be developed and
subsequently tested.
Based on the results of hypothesis testing the extend
to which the problem can be solved becomes evident.

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Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework:
o Represents and elaborates the relationship
among the variables.
o Explains the theory underlying these relations.
o Describes the nature and direction of the
relationships.

Just as the literature review sets the stage

for a good theoretical framework, this in
turn provides the logical base for developing
testable hypothesis.
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Basic features in any theoretical

framework:
The variables considered relevant to the study
should be clearly defined.
A conceptual model that describes the relationships
between the variables in the model should be
given.
There should be a clear explanation of why we
expect these relationships to exist.

Both a schematic diagram of the conceptual

model and a description of the relationships
between the variables in words should be
given, so that the reader can see and easily
comprehend the theorized relationships.
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Hypothesis development
Hypothesis can be defined as logically
conjectured (an opinion or idea formed
without proof or sufficient evidence)
relationships between two or more
variables expressed in the form of testable
Statement: By testing the hypothesis and
confirming the conjectured (an opinion or
idea formed without proof or sufficient
evidence) relationships, it is expected that
solutions can be found to correct the
problem in countered.
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Statement of hypothesis :
Formats
1- If-Then statement
To examine whether or not the
conjectured (an opinion or idea formed
without proof or sufficient evidence)
relationship or differences exist, this
hypothesis can be set either propositions
or in the form of If-Then statement.
Example:
IF the employees are more healthy, THEN
they will take sick leave less frequently.
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Statement of
hypothesis : Formats
2- Directional and non directional hypothesis
If, instating the relationship between two variables or
comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative,
more then, less then, and the like are used, then these are:
Directional hypothesis: because the direction of the
relationship between the variables ( positive negative) is
indicated.
Example:
The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the
job satisfaction of employees.
Non directional hypothesis: there is a significant relationship
between two variables, we may not be able to say whether
the relationship is positive or negative.
Example:
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.
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Statement of
hypothesis : Formats
3- Null and alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis may state that the
correlation between two variables is equal
to zero.
The null statement is expressed in terms of
there being no relationship between two
variables.
The alternate hypothesis, which is the
opposite of the null, is a statement
expressing a relationship between two
variables.
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Statement of
hypothesis : Formats
The steps to be followed in
hypothesis testing are:
1. State the null(if required, usually
not necessary i.e., hypothesis)
and the alternate hypothesis.
2. Choose the appropriate statistical
test (qualitative or quantitative
research methodologies).

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Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional research is used to examine one variable in different groups
that are similar in all other characteristics
Definition of Cross-Sectional Research
If you wanted to know if the percentage of women diagnosed with breast
cancer increases with age, how would you go about answering this question?
One way you could find the answer is to look at three groups of women who
are similar but of different ages. Let's say your three age groups are 20-35
years, 36-50 years, and 51-65 years. You can then calculate the percentage of
women in each group that have been diagnosed with breast cancer. This
information can then be used to answer your question.
This is an example of cross-sectional research. Cross-sectional research
involves using different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest
but share other characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, educational
background and ethnicity.
In the example above, the variable of interest was age because you wanted to
see if any changes were noticed in groups of different ages. By looking at
similar women in different age groups you can assume that any differences
between groups can be attributed to age difference rather than another factor.

Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional research studies are based on observations that take place in
different groups at one time. This means that there is no experimental
procedure, so no variables are manipulated by the researcher. Instead of
performing an experiment, you would simply record the information that you
observe in the groups you are examining. Because of this, a cross-sectional
research study can be used to describe the characteristics that exist in a
group, but it cannot be used to determine any relationship that may exist.
This method is used to gather information only. The information may then be
used to develop other methods to investigate the relationship that is
observed.
Let's use the previous example to understand how this works. In the crosssectional study to examine if there are different percentages of women
diagnosed with breast cancer at different ages, you find out that the
percentages are higher as the age group increases. This information does not
tell you why breast cancer diagnosis increases with age only that it does. If
you combine this information with other research, you could use it to develop
a hypothesis about why breast cancer diagnosis increases with age. You would
then need to use other research methods to test your idea.

Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional research studies all have the following
characteristics:
takes place at a single point in time
variables are not manipulated by researchers
provide information only; do not answer why
In psychology, cross-sectional research studies are often used
by researchers studying developmental psychology. They
often do this to examine changes in similar groups at different
ages. However, a cross-sectional study may also compare
groups from different backgrounds. It would be a crosssectional study if you measure the reading abilities of six-yearolds in low, middle, and high-income families. You could
observe any differences in reading ability at that age for the
various income groups in a community.

Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal research is used to study individuals at different stages in their lives.
One group is studied over many years
Definition
Have ever wondered how developmental psychologist study changes over the
lifespan? How do children's career aspirations develop over time? How does
divorce affect children? How stable is personality? When do developmentally
delayed children receiving special services catch up with their peers, if they do?
What are the physical and mental health consequences of being in a war zone?
Longitudinal research can answer those questions and more.
A longitudinal study is correlational research which follows one group of
individuals over a long period of time, perhaps decades. Correlational research
does not establish cause and effect, but only a relationship between two factors or
characteristics. To be defined as longitudinal research, researchers must
evaluate the subjects at a minimum of two different time periods so they can be
compared. Frequently, researchers meet with the subjects many times on a regular
basis, for example every two months or every five years. The length of time is
dependent on the topic of the research, the length of the study, and the age of the
subjects. The identifying feature of longitudinal research is studying one group of
individuals over time.