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The Atom
1) Nucleons
2) Isotopes
3) Natural Radioactivity
4) Half-Life
5) Nuclear Power
6) Electron Configuation
7) Development of the Atomic Model
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Nucleons
Protons: +1 each, determines identity of element, mass of 1
protons.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element MUST contain the same
number of protons.
Atoms of the same element can vary in their numbers of
neutrons, therefore many different atomic masses can exist
for any one element. These are called isotopes.
The atomic mass on the Periodic Table is the
weight-average atomic mass, taking into account the
different isotope masses and their relative abundance.
Rounding off the atomic mass on the Periodic Table will
tell you what the most common isotope of that element is.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
abundances are:
X-200: Mass = 200.0 amu, % abundance = 20.0 %
X-204: Mass = 204.0 amu, % abundance = 80.0%
amu = atomic mass unit (1.66 10-27 kilograms/amu)
Co
S
Ag
Pb
Natural Radioactivity
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay
Positron Decay
Gamma Decay
Charges of Decay Particles
Natural decay starts with a parent nuclide
Alpha Decay
Beta Decay
Positron Decay
Gamma Decay
The nucleus has energy levels just like electrons, but the
Half-Life
Half life is the time it takes for half of
Radioactive Dating
A sample of an ancient scroll contains 50% of the original
Nuclear Power
Artificial Transmutation
Particle Accelerators
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion
Artificial Transmutation
4020Ca + _____ ----->
9642Mo +
K + 11H
40
19
2
1
Particle Accelerators
Devices that use electromagnetic fields to accelerate
Nuclear Fission
235
92
U +
92
36
Kr +
141
56
Ba + 3
n + energy
Chain Reaction
Nuclear Fusion
21H + 21H 42He + energy
Two small, positively-charged nuclei
Electron Configuration
Basic Configuration
Valence Electrons
Electron-Dot (Lewis Dot) Diagrams
Excited vs. Ground State
What is Light?
Basic Configuration
The number of electrons is determined from the atomic
number.
Look up the basic configuration below the atomic number
on the periodic table. (PEL: principal energy level = shell)
He: 2 (2 e- in the 1st PEL)
Na: 2-8-1 (2 e- in the 1st PEL, 8 in the 2nd and 1 in the
3rd)
Br: 2-8-18-7 (2 e- in the 1st PEL, 8 in the 2nd, 18 in the
3rd and 7 in the 4th)
Valence Electrons
The valence electrons are responsible for all chemical
bonding.
The valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost PEL
(shell).
He: 2 (2 valence electrons)
Na: 2-8-1 (1 valence electron)
Br: 2-8-18-7 (7 valence electrons)
Electron-Dot Diagrams
The number of dots equals the number of valence
electrons.
The number of unpaired valence electrons in a nonmetal
tells you how many covalent bonds that atom can form
with other nonmetals or how many electrons it wants to
gain from metals to form an ion.
The number of valence electrons in a metal tells you how
many electrons the metal will lose to nonmetals to form an
ion. Caution: May not work with transition metals.
configurations.
If electrons are given energy, they rise to higher energy
levels (excited state).
If the total number of electrons matches in the
configuration, but the configuration doesnt match, the
atom is in the excited state.
Na (ground, on table): 2-8-1
Example of excited states: 2-7-2, 2-8-0-1, 2-6-3
What Is Light?
Light is formed when electrons drop from
EXAMPLE SPECTRUM
l
Bohr Model
Quantum-Mechanical Model
Thompson Model
The atom is a positively charged diffuse
Rutherford Model
The atom is made of a small, dense, positively charged
Bohr Model
Electrons orbit around the nucleus in energy levels (shells).
Quantum-Mechanical Model
Electron energy levels are wave functions.
Electrons are found in orbitals, regions of space where an
Matter
1) Properties of Phases
2) Types of Matter
3) Phase Changes
Properties of Phases
Solids: Crystal lattice (regular geometric pattern),
Solids
Liquids
When heated, the ions move
faster and eventually
separate from each other to
form a liquid. The ions are
loosely held together by the
oppositely charged ions, but
the ions are moving too fast
for the crystal lattice to stay
together.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Gases
Since all gas molecules spread out
the same way, equal volumes of
gas under equal conditions of
temperature and pressure will
contain equal numbers of
molecules of gas. 22.4 L of any
gas at STP (1.00 atm and 273K)
will contain one mole
(6.02 X 1023) gas molecules.
Since there is space between gas
molecules, gases are affected by
in pressure.
(c) 2006, changes
Mark Rosen
garten
Types of Matter
Substances (Homogeneous)
Elements (cannot be decomposed by chemical
change): Al, Ne, O, Br, H
Compounds (can be decomposed by chemical
change): NaCl, Cu(ClO3)2, KBr, H2O, C2H6
Mixtures
Homogeneous: Solutions (solvent + solute)
Heterogeneous: soil, Italian dressing, etc.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Elements
A sample of lead atoms (Pb). All
Compounds
Lead has two charges listed, +2
Mixtures
A mixture of lead atoms and
Phase Changes
Phase Change Types
Phase Change Diagrams
Heat of Phase Change
Evaporation
100oC?
q=mHv = (100.g)(2260 J/g) = 226000 J
Evaporation
When the surface molecules of a gas travel upwards at a
Bonding
1) The Periodic Table
2) Ions
3) Ionic Bonding
4) Covalent Bonding
5) Metallic Bonding
Metals
Have luster, are malleable and ductile, good
Nonmetals
Are dull and brittle, poor conductors
Gain electrons from metal atoms to form negatively c
harged ions
in ionic bonds
Share unpaired valence electrons with other nonmetal
atoms to form covalent bonds and molecules
Small atomic radii compared to metal atoms
High electronegativity and ionization energy
Right side of the periodic table (except Group 18)
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Metalloids
Found lying on the jagged line between metals and
Chemistry of Groups
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Groups 3-11: Transition Elements
Group 17: Halogens
Group 18: Noble Gases
Diatomic Molecules
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
nature
React violently with water to form hydrogen gas
and a strong base: 2 Na (s) + H2O (l) 2 NaOH
(aq) + H2 (g)
1 valence electron
Form +1 ion by losing that valence electron
Form oxides like Na2O, Li2O, K2O
nature
React strongly with water to form hydrogen gas
and a base:
Ca (s) + 2 H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
2 valence electrons
Form +2 ion by losing those valence electrons
Form oxides like CaO, MgO, BaO
ions
Share 1 valence electron with another nonmetal
atom to form one covalent bond.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Diatomic Molecules
Br, I, N, Cl, H, O and F are so reactive that they exist in a
Electronegativity
An atoms attraction to electrons in a chemical bond.
F has the highest, at 4.0
Fr has the lowest, at 0.7
If two atoms that are different in EN (END) from each other by
1.7 or more collide and bond (like a metal atom and a nonmetal
atom), the one with the higher electronegativity will pull the
valence electrons away from the atom with the lower
electronegativity to form a (-) ion. The atom that was stripped
of its valence electrons forms a (+) ion.
If the two atoms have an END of less than 1.7, they will share
their unpaired valence electronscovalent bond!
Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove the most loosely held
Ions
Ions are charged particles formed by the gain or loss of
electrons.
Metals lose electrons (oxidation) to form (+) charged
cations.
Nonmetals gain electrons (reduction) to form (-) charged
anions.
Atoms will gain or lose electrons in such a way that they end up
with 8 valence electrons (stable octet).
The exceptions to this are H, Li, Be and B, which are not
large enough to support 8 valence electrons. They must be
satisfied with 2 (Li, Be, B) or 0 (H).
Ca+2: 2-8-8
N: 2-5
N-3: 2-8
Ionic Bonding
If two atoms that are different in EN (END) from each other
Covalent Bonding
If two nonmetal atoms have an END of 1.7 or less, they
Metallic Bonding
Metal atoms of the same element bond with each other by
Compounds
1) Types of Compounds
2) Formula Writing
3) Formula Naming
4) Empirical Formulas
5) Molecular Formulas
6) Types of Chemical Reactions
7) Balancing Chemical Reactions
8) Attractive Forces
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Types of Compounds
Ionic: made of metal and nonmetal ions. Form an ionic
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Crystal Structure, then adding heat (or dissolving in water) to break
up the crystal into a liquid composed of free-moving ions.
Molecular Compounds
Network Solids
Network solids are made of nonmetal atoms covalently
bonded together to form large crystal lattices. No individual
molecules can be distinguished. Examples include C
(diamond) and SiO2 (quartz). Corundum (Al2O3) also forms
these, even though Al is considered a metal. Network solids
are among the hardest materials known. They have
extremely high melting points and do not conduct electricity.
Formula Writing
The charge of the (+) ion and the charge of the (-) ion must
Formulas to Write
Ba+2 and N-3
NH4+1 and SO4-2
Li+1 and S-2
Cu+2 and NO3-1
Al+3 and CO3-2
Fe+3 and Cl-1
Pb+4 and O-2
Pb+2 and O-2
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Formula Naming
Compounds are named from the elements or
Try
Co(NO3)2 and
Co(NO3)3
garten
Empirical Formulas
Ionic formulas: represent the simplest whole number mole
Molecular Formulas
The count of the actual number of atoms of each element
in a molecule.
H2O: a molecule made of two H atoms and one O atom
covalently bonded together.
C2H6O: A molecule made of two C atoms, six H atoms and
one O atom covalently bonded together.
Molecular formulas are whole-number multiples of
empirical formulas:
H2O = 1 X (H2O)
C8H16 = 8 X (CH2)
Calculating Molecular
Formulas
(c) 2006,
Mark Rosen
garten
Synthesis
Two elements combine to form a compound
2 Na + O2 Na2O
Same reaction, with charges added in:
Decomposition
A compound breaks down into its original elements.
Na2O 2 Na + O2
Same reaction, with charges added in:
Single Replacement
An element replaces the same type of element in a compound.
Ca + 2 KCl CaCl2 + 2 K
Same reaction, with charges added in:
Double Replacement
The (+) ion of one compound bonds to the (-) ion of another
that amount
2 Ca(NO3)2 means that you have 2 Ca, 4 N and 12 O.
Examples for you to try!
Reactions to Balance
___NaCl ___Na + ___Cl2
___Al + ___O2 ___Al2O3
___SO3 ___SO2 + ___O2
___Ca + ___HNO3 ___Ca(NO3)2 + ___H2
__FeCl3 + __Pb(NO3)2 __Fe(NO3)3 + __PbCl2
Attractive Forces
Molecules have partially charged ends. The + end of one
Determining Polarity of
Molecules
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrogen Bond
Attractions
Math of Chemistry
1) Formula Mass
2) Percent Composition
3) Mole Problems
4) Gas Laws
5) Neutralization
6) Concentration
7) Significant Figures and Rounding
8) Metric Conversions
9) Calorimetry
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Formula Mass
Gram Formula Mass = sum of atomic masses of all
BaBr2
CaSO4
Al2(CO3)3
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Percent Composition
What is the % composition, by mass,
of each element in SiO2?
%Si =
(28.1/60.1) X 100 = 46.8%
%O = (2 X 16.0 = 32.0), (32.0/60.1) X 100 = 53.2%
Practice Percent
Composition Problem
What is the percent by mass of each element in Li2SO4?
Mole Problems
Grams <=> Moles
Molecular Formula
Stoichiometry
weigh?
3.00 moles X 40.0 g/mol = 120. g
How many moles of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) are represented
by 10.0 grams?
(10.0 g) / (40.0 g/mol) = 0.250 mol
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Molecular Formula
Molecular Formula = (Molecular Mass/Empirical Mass) X Empirical Formula
Stoichiometry
Gas Laws
Make a data table to put the numbers so you can eliminate the
words.
Make sure that any Celsius temperatures are converted to Kelvin
(add 273).
Rearrange the equation before substituting in numbers. If you are
trying to solve for T2, get it out of the denominator first by crossmultiplying.
If one of the variables is constant, then eliminate it.
Try these problems!
atm)
= 0.500 L
Neutralization
10.0 mL of 0.20 M HCl is neutralized by 40.0 mL of
Concentration
Molarity
Parts per Million
Percent by Mass
Percent by Volume
Molarity
Percent by Mass
A 50.0 gram sample of a solution is evaporated and found
Percent By Volume
Substitute volume for mass in the above equation.
What is the percent by volume of hexane if 20.0 mL of
oblems?
How do I round off answers to multiplication and division
problems?
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Measurement
# of Sig Figs
Measurement
# of Sig Figs
0.115 cm
234 cm
0.00034 cm
67000 cm
0.00304 cm
0.0560 cm
_
45000 cm
560. cm
0.00070700 cm
560.00 cm
What Precision?
A numbers precision is determined by the furthest
figures.
Metric Conversions
Determine how many powers of ten
Calorimetry
here. You will not have to solve for C, since we will always
assume that the energy transfer is being absorbed by or
released by a measured quantity of water, whose specific
heat is given above.
Solving for q
Solving for m
Solving for
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Solving for q
How many joules are absorbed by 100.0 grams of water in
Solving for m
A sample of water in a calorimeter cup increases from
Solving for T
If a 50.0 gram sample of water in a calorimeter cup
temperature be?
Since the water ABSORBS the energy, its temperature will
INCREASE by the T: 20.0oC + 4.8oC = 24.8oC
Reaction Rate
Reactions happen when reacting particles collide with
Heat of Reaction
Reactions either absorb PE (endothermic, +H) or release
PE (exothermic, -H)
Making a PE Diagram
X axis: Reaction Coordinate (time, no units)
Y axis: PE (kJ)
Three lines representing energy (Hreactants, Hactivated complex,
Hproducts)
Two arrows representing energy changes:
Endothermic PE Diagram
If a catalyst is added?
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Exothermic PE Diagram
(c) with
2006,a Mark
Rosen
What does it look like
catalyst?
garten
Equilibrium
When the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse reaction. (c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Examples of Equilibrium
Solution Equilibrium: when a solution is saturated, the rate of
Le Chteliers Principle
If a system at equilibrium is stressed, the equilibrium
NEXT
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Examples
For the reaction N2(g)
garten
Solubility Curves
Solubility: the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in a
Solubility
Solubility: go to the temperature
and up to the desired line, then
across to the Y-axis. This is how
many g of solute are needed to
make a saturated solution of that
solute in 100g of H2O at that
particular temperature.
At 40oC, the solubility of KNO3 in
100g of water is 64 g. In 200g of
water, double that amount. In 50g
of water, cut it in half.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Supersaturated
If 120 g of NaNO3 are added to
100g of water at 30oC:
1) The solution would be
SUPERSATURATED, because
there is more solute dissolved
than the solubility allows
2) The extra 25g would
precipitate out
3) If you heated the solution up
by 24oC (to 54oC), the excess
would dissolve.
(c) 2006, solute
Mark Rosen
garten
Unsaturated
If 80 g of KNO3 are added to
100g of water at 60oC:
1) The solution would be
UNSATURATED, because there
is less solute dissolved than the
solubility allows
2) 26g more can be added to
make a saturated solution
3) If you cooled the solution
down by 12oC (to 48oC), the
solution would become saturated
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
garten
Properties of Acids
Acids react with metals above H2 on Table J to
Naming of Acids
Binary Acids (H+ and a nonmetal)
first, then figure out what the negative ion is based on the
name. Cancel out the charges to write the formula. Dont
forget the (aq) after itits only an acid if its in water!
Hydrosulfuric acid: H+1 and S-2 = H2S (aq)
Carbonic acid: H+1 and CO3-2 = H2CO3 (aq)
Chlorous acid: H+1 and ClO2-1 = HClO2 (aq)
Hydrobromic acid: H+1 and Br-1 = HBr (aq)
Hydronitric acid:
Hypochlorous acid:
Perchloric acid: (c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Properties of Bases
Bases react with fats to form soap and glycerol. This
Naming of Bases
Bases are named like any ionic
Neutralization
H+1 + OH-1 HOH
Acid + Base Water + Salt (double replacement)
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) HOH (l) + NaCl (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) + KOH (aq) 2 HOH (l) + K2SO4 (aq)
HBr (aq) + LiOH (aq)
H2CrO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq)
HNO3 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)
H3PO4 (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq)
pH
strength.
A pH of 4 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 5.
A pH of 12 is 100(c)
times
more
basic
than a pH of 10.
2006,
Mark
Rosen
garten
Indicators
At a pH of 2:
Methyl Orange = red
Bromthymol Blue = yellow
Phenolphthalein = colorless
Litmus = red
Methyl orange is red at a pH of
3.2 and below and yellow at a pH
of 4.4 and higher. In between the
two numbers, it is an intermediate
color that is not listed on this
table.
Alternate Theories
Arrhenius Theory: acids and bases must be in aqueous
solution.
Alternate Theory: Not necessarily so!
Acid: proton (H+1) donorgives up H+1 in a reaction.
Base: proton (H+1) acceptorgains H+1 in a reaction.
HNO3 + H2O H3O+1 + NO3-1
Oxidation Numbers
Elements have no charge until they bond to other elements.
Agents
Ca0 + 2 H+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl-12 + H20
Since Ca0 is being oxidized and H+1 is being reduced, the
Writing Half-Reactions
Ca0 + 2 H+1Cl-1 Ca+2Cl-12 + H20
Oxidation: Ca0 Ca+2 + 2e Reduction: 2H+1 + 2e- H20
PRACTICE SOME!
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Practice Half-Reactions
Dont forget to determine the charge of each species first!
4 Li + O2 2 Li2O
Oxidation Half-Reaction:
Reduction Half-Reaction:
Zn + Na2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2 Na
Oxidation Half-Reaction:
Reduction Half-Reaction:
Balancing Half-Reactions
Ca0 + Fe+3 Ca+2 + Fe0
Cas charge changes by 2, so double the Fe.
Fes charge changes by 3, so triple the Ca.
Activity Series
For metals, the higher up the chart the
Metal Activity
3 K0 + Fe+3Cl-13
REACTION
Fe0 + 3 K+1Cl-1
NO REACTION
Voltaic Cells
Produce electrical current using a spontaneous redox reaction
Used to make batteries!
Materials needed: two beakers, piece of the oxidized metal
Create
Your
Own
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Cell!!!!
How It Works
Since Zn is listed above Cu, Zn0 will be
oxidized when it reacts with Cu+2. The
reaction: Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
The Zn0 anode loses 2 e-, which go up the wire and through
the load. The Zn0 electrode gets smaller as the Zn0 becomes
Zn+2 and dissolves into solution. The e- go into the Cu0,
where they sit on the outside surface of the Cu0 cathode and
wait for Cu+2 from the solution to come over so that the ecan jump on to the Cu+2 and reduce it to Cu0. The size of
the Cu0 electrode increases. The negative ions in solution
go over the salt bridge to the anode side to complete the
circuit.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
garten
Rosen
Electrolytic Cells
Use electricity to force a nonspontaneous redox reaction to
take place.
Uses for Electrolytic Cells:
Decomposition of Alkali Metal Compounds
Decomposition of Water into Hydrogen and Oxygen
Electroplating
Differences between Voltaic and Electrolytic Cells:
ANODE:
Voltaic (-)
Electrolytic (+)
CATHODE:
Voltaic (+)
Electrolytic (-)
Voltaic: 2 half-cells, a salt bridge and a load
Electrolytic: 1(c)
cell,
no salt
bridge,
2006,
Mark
RosenIS the load
garten
Decomposing Alkali
Metal Compounds
2 NaCl 2 Na + Cl2
Decomposing Water
2 H2O 2 H2 + O2
The H+ is reduced at
the (-) cathode,
yielding H2 (g), which
is trapped in the tube.
Electroplating
The Ag0 is oxidized to Ag+1
when the (+) end of the
battery strips its electrons
off.
Organic Chemistry
1) Hydrocarbons
2) Substituted Hydrocarbons
3) Organic Families
4) Organic Reactions
Hydrocarbons
Molecules made of Hydrogen and Carbon
Carbon forms four bonds, hydrogen forms one bond
Hydrocarbons come in three different homologous series:
Alkanes
CH4 = methane
C2H6 = ethane
C3H8 = propane
C4H10 = butane
C5H12 = pentane
To find the number of hydrogens,
Methane
Meth-: one carbon
-ane: alkane
Ethane
Eth-: two carbons
-ane: alkane
Propane
Prop-: three carbons
-ane: alkane
Also known as cylinder gas, usually stored under pressure
and used for gas grills and stoves. Its also very handy as a
fuel for Bunsen burners!
Butane
But-: four carbons
-ane: alkane
Liquefies with moderate pressure, useful for gas lighters. You
have probably lit your gas grill with a grill lighter fueled with
butane!
Pentane
Pent-: five carbons
-ane: alkane
Your Turn!!!
Draw Hexane:
Draw Heptane:
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Alkenes
C2H4 = Ethene
C3H6 = Propene
C4H8 = Butene
C5H10 = Pentene
To find the number of hydrogens, double
Ethene
Two carbons, double bonded.
Notice how each carbon has
four bonds? Two to the other
carbon and two to hydrogen
atoms.
Also called ethylene, is used for the production of
polyethylene, which is an extensively used plastic. Look for
the PE, HDPE (#2 recycling) or LDPE (#4 recycling)
on your plastic bags and containers!
Propene
Three carbons, two of them
double bonded. Notice how
each carbon has four bonds?
If you flipped this molecule so that the double bond was on
the right side of the molecule instead of the left, it would still
be the same molecule. This is true of all alkenes.
Butene
This is 1-butene, because the double
bond is between the 1st and 2nd
carbon from the end. The number 1
represents the lowest numbered
carbon the double bond is touching.
This is 2-butene. The double bond
is between the 2nd and 3rd carbon
from the end. Always count from
the end the double bond is closest
to.
ISOMERS: Molecules that share the same molecular
formula, but have different structural formulas.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Pentene
This is 1-pentene. The double bond is
on the first carbon from the end.
Alkynes
C2H2 = Ethyne
C3H4 = Propyne
C4H6 = Butyne
C5H8 = Pentyne
To find the number of hydrogens, double
Ethyne
Propyne
This is propyne! Nope! No
isomers.
OK, now draw butyne. If there are any isomers, draw
them too.
Butyne
Well, heres 1-butyne!
Pentyne
1-pentyne
2-pentyne
Now, draw all of the possible isomers for hexyne!
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon chains can have three kinds of dingly-
Alkyl Groups
Halide Groups
Organic Families
Each family has a functional group to identify it.
Ether (R1-O-R2)
Ester (R1-COO-R2, carboxyl group in the middle)
Amine (R-NH2, amine group)
Amide (R-CONH2, amide group)
These molecules are alkanes with functional groups attached. The
Alcohol
Positioning of
Functional Group
Organic Acid
These are weak acids. The H on the right side is the one
that ionized in water to form H3O+. The -COOH (carboxyl)
functional group is always on a PRIMARY carbon.
Can be formed from the oxidation of primary alcohols
using a KMnO4 catalyst.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Aldehyde
Ketone
Ether
Ester
Esters are named for the alcohol and organic acid that
reacted by esterification to form the ester. If the alcohol was
1-propanol and the acid was hexanoic acid, the name of the
ester would be propyl hexanoate. Esters contain a COO
(carboxyl) group in the middle of the molecule, which
differentiates them from organic acids.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Amine
Amide
Organic Reactions
Combustion
Fermentation
Substitution
Addition
Dehydration Synthesis
Etherification
Esterification
Saponification
Polymerization
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Combustion
Happens when an organic molecule reacts with oxygen gas
Fermentation
Substitution
Alkane + Halogen Alkyl Halide + Hydrogen Halide
The halogen atoms substitute for any of the hydrogen atoms in the alkane. This happens one atom at a time. The halide generally replaces an H on the end of the
molecule.
C2H6 + Cl2 C2H5Cl + HCl
The second Cl can then substitute for another H:
C2H5Cl + HCl C2H4Cl2 + H2
Addition
Alkene + Halogen Alkyl Halide
The double bond is broken, and the halogen adds at either
Etherification*
Alcohol + Alcohol Ether + Water
A dehydrating agent (H2SO4) removes H from one alcohols
Note: dimethyl ether and diethyl ether are also produced from
this reaction, but can be separated out.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Esterification
Organic Acid + Alcohol
Ester + Water
A dehydrating agent (H2SO4) removes H from the organic acid and removes the OH
from the alcohol. The two molecules join where there H and OH were removed.
Saponification
The process of making soap from glycerol esters (fats).
Glycerol ester + 3 NaOH soap + glycerol
Glyceryl stearate + 3 NaOH sodium stearate + glycerol
The sodium stearate is the soap! It emulsifies grease
surrounds globules with its nonpolar ends, creating micelles
with - charge that water can then wash away. Hard water
replaces Na+ with Ca+2 and/or other low solubility ions, which
forms a precipitate called soap scum.
Water softeners remove these hardening ions from your tap
water, allowing the soap to dissolve normally.
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
Polymerization
A polymer is a very long-chain molecule made up of many
Addition Polymers
Joining monomers together by breaking double
bonds
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): vinyl siding, PVC pipes, etc.
Vinyl chloride
n C2H3Cl
polyvinyl chloride
-(-C2H3Cl-)-n
PTFE
-(-C2F4-)-n
(c) 2006,
Mark Rosen
garten
Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymerization is just dehydration synthesis,
except instead of making one molecule of ether or ester, you
make a monster molecule of polyether or polyester.
Rubber
VULCANIZATION
!!!
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten
THE END
(c) 2006, Mark Rosen
garten