TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE
Temperature,inphysics,property of systems that determines whether
they are in thermal equilibrium. The concept of temperature stems from
the idea of measuring relative hotness and coldness and from the
observation that the addition of heat to a body leads to an increase in
temperature as long as no melting or boiling occurs. In the case of two
bodies at different temperatures, heat will flow from the hotter to the
colder until their temperatures are identical and thermal equilibrium is
reached. Thus, temperatures and heat, although interrelated, refer to
different concepts, temperature being a property of a body and heat
being an energy flow to or from a body by virtue of a temperature
difference.

TEMPERATURE
Temperaturechangeshave to be measured in terms of other property
changes of a substance. Thus, the conventional mercury thermometer
measures the expansion of a mercury column in a glass capillary, the
change in length of the column being related to the temperature change.
If heat is added to an ideal gas contained in a constant-volume vessel, the
pressure increases, and the temperature change can be determined from
the pressure change by Gay-Lussac's law, provided the temperature is
expressed on the absolute scale.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Oneoftheearliesttemperature scales was that devised by the German
physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. According to this scale, at standard
atmospheric pressure, the freezing point (and melting point of ice) is 32
F, and the boiling point is 212 F. The centigrade, or Celsius scale,
invented by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, and used throughout
most of the world, assigns a value of 0 C to the freezing point and 100 C
to the boiling point. In scientific work, the absolute or Kelvin scale,
invented by the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson, 1st
Baron Kelvin, is most widely used. In this scale, absolute zero is at
-273.15C, which is zero K, and the degree intervals are identical to those
measured on the Celsius scale (see Absolute Zero). The corresponding
absolute Fahrenheit or Rankine scale, devised by the British engineer
and physicist William J. M. Rankine, places absolute zero at 0R, which is

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
Temperatureplaysanimportant part in determining the conditions in
which living matter can exist. Thus, birds and mammals demand a very
narrow range of body temperatures for survival and must be protected
against extreme heat or COLD. Aquatic species can exist only within a
narrow temperature range of the water, which differs for various species.
Thus, for example, the increase in temperature of river water by only a
few degrees as a result of heat discharged from power plants may kill
most of the native fish.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
Temperatureplaysanimportant part in determining the conditions in
which living matter can exist. Thus, birds and mammals demand a very
narrow range of body temperatures for survival and must be protected
against extreme heat or COLD. Aquatic species can exist only within a
narrow temperature range of the water, which differs for various species.
Thus, for example, the increase in temperature of river water by only a
few degrees as a result of heat discharged from power plants may kill
most of the native fish.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
Thepropertiesofall materials are also markedly affected by temperature
changes. At arctic temperatures, for example, steel becomes very brittle
and breaks easily, and liquids either solidify or become very viscous,
offering high frictional resistance to flow. At temperatures near absolute
zero, many materials exhibit strikingly different characteristics. At high
temperatures, solid materials liquefy or become gaseous; chemical
compounds may break up into their constituents.

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
Thetemperatureofthe atmosphere is greatly influenced by both the land
and the sea areas. In January, for example, the great landmasses of the
northern hemisphere are much colder than the oceans at the same
latitude, and in July the situation is reversed. At low elevations the air
temperature is also determined largely by the surface temperature of the
earth. The periodic temperature changes are due mainly to the sun's
radiant heating of the land areas of the earth, which in turn convect heat
to the overlying air. As a result of this phenomenon, the temperature
decreases with altitude, from a standard reference value of 15.5 C (60
F) at sea level (in temperate latitudes), to about -55 C (about -67 F) at
about 11,000 m (about 36,000 ft). Above this altitude, the temperature
remains nearly constant up to about 33,500 m (about 110,000 ft)

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
Thetemperatureofthe atmosphere is greatly influenced by both the land
and the sea areas. In January, for example, the great landmasses of the
northern hemisphere are much colder than the oceans at the same
latitude, and in July the situation is reversed. At low elevations the air
temperature is also determined largely by the surface temperature of the
earth. The periodic temperature changes are due mainly to the sun's
radiant heating of the land areas of the earth, which in turn convect heat
to the overlying air. As a result of this phenomenon, the temperature
decreases with altitude, from a standard reference value of 15.5 C (60
F) at sea level (in temperate latitudes), to about -55 C (about -67 F) at
about 11,000 m (about 36,000 ft). Above this altitude, the temperature
remains nearly constant up to about 33,500 m (about 110,000 ft)