EQUATIONS IN OCF

PART 2

EXPECTED LEARNING
OUTCOMES
1

CONTINUITY EQUATION

ENERGY EQUATION
Specific Energy
Critical Flows

MOMENTUM EQUATION
Hydraulics Jump

CONTINUITY EQUATION
Commonly used in the analysis of flowing fluids
Developed from the law conservation of mass

A2
V2

A1
V1

Q = A1V1 =A2V2
where, A is the area
of cross section and V
is the mean velocity.

For rectangular channel of 1 m width (B),

Q can be expressed as discharge per unit width, q
(m3/s/m) ,
q = Q/B

In
steady flow, the discharge, passing any sections
along the channel must be the same.
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = AiVi

What if the flow is unsteady?

TOTAL ENERGY EQUATION

Total Energy equation in OCF
is,
Total head (H) = Elevation
above a datum (z) +
Pressure head (y) + Velocity
head (V2/2g)
Energy Line represents the

H at any point in a channel of large slope is,

kinetic energy correction
factor

V2
H z y cos
2g
Elevation
Pressure
Head

Velocity
Head

If the slope is small ( =1) and the flow is uniform

flow ( =1), the equation becomes,
V2
H z y
2g

At any two sections (1 and 2),

the energy equation can be

written as
where, H1 is total head at Section 1
H2 is the total head at Section 2
hL is the loss of energy between the two
sections.

Fig. Definition sketch for the energy eq.

SPECIFIC ENERGY

SPECIFIC ENERGY
Specific Energy, E in OCF is,
Specific energy (E) = Pressure head (y) + Velocity
head (V2/2g)
V2
E y cos

2g

Or
If the slope is small ( =1) and the flow is uniform
flow ( =1), the equation becomes,
2
V
E y
2g

At constant Discharge situation

Since V = Q/A where A = By,
The equation now becomes,

V2
E y
2g

Q2
E y
2gA 2

This equation can be transformed into a graph that is

called the Specific Energy Curve.
It is a plot of water depth, y (y-axis) versus specific energy,
E (x-axis).

SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE

The plot is applicable for a
single flow, Q1.
For a channel that involves
variations of Q (Q1, Q2, Q3,)
the plot consists of many
curves.
Fig. Definition sketch of specific energy

A Dimensionless SpecificEnergy Curve, i.e. y/ yc versus

E/ yc is a combination of all

WHAT DOES THE PLOT TELL

YOU?
A value of E gives two possible

Fig. Definition sketch of specific energy

depths. These depths are called the

alternate depths (y1 & y2).
At point C, the alternate depths will
merge with each other, resulting in a
single depth. This depth is called the
critical depth, yc.
At the critical depth, the specific
energy is minimum Ec
For y that is larger than yc, the flow
is subcritical.
For y that is smaller than yc, the flow
is supercritical.

EXAMPLE
1. Rectangular channel. B = 2.5 m, Q = 6.48 m3/s, E
= 1.5 m. Find alternate depths and the
corresponding Froude numbers.

Given,

CRITICAL
FLOWS

Subcritical Flow

Critical Flow
Supercritical Flow

The basic equation used to obtain critical depth, yc

for any channel shapes, including the irregular
channel sections
T(y)
dA=T dy

dy
y

A(y)

General Nonrectangular Section

T(y)

dA=T dy

dy
y

The specific energy equation, E,

Q2
E y
2gA 2

By differentiating E with respect to (keeping

constant)
dE
Q 2 dA
1 3
dy
gA dy

A(y)

T(y)

dA=T dy

dy
y

To get Ec,
let dE/dy =0.
Thus, the remaining terms will be in critical
conditions.
Q 2 dAc
0 1 3
gAc dyc

A(y)

T(y)
dA=T dy

dy
y

A(y)

But, dA/dy=T=Top width of the channel at the water surface.

Therefore, for critical flow condition: dAc/dyc = Tc
or

And Froude
Number,

Q 2Tc
1
3
gAc
F

Ac
Q2

g
Tc
V
gA
T

(at critical flow condition)

OOPS

(at critical flow condition)

How
?

REMEMBER! At critical flow conditions,

y = yc

E = Ec

A = Ac

F=1

And the basic equation used to obtain critical depth, yc for

any channel shapes, including the irregular channel sections
are:
2
3
2

Q Tc
Ac
Q
1 or

3
gAc
g
Tc

Some simplified equations for certain channel shapes are

presented in the next slides.

SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS OF THE

CRITICAL DEPTH FOR CERTAIN
CHANNEL SHAPES

RECTANGULAR SECTION

For
a rectangular section, and

by equation

T=B

Specific energy at critical depth is

If

Hence, Critical depth,

B

TRIANGULAR SECTION
For

a triangular channel having a side slope of

m horizontal: 1 vertical, and
By equation

2my

Hence,
The specific energy at critical depth
y

Therefore,

Ec 1.25 yc

1
m

When do Critical Depth occurs?

It occurs when the flow changes from subcritical to supercritical
or vice versa.

Examples of Critical Depth Occurrence

In a sloping channel
Flow from a reservoir to a channel
Flow flowing towards a free overfall channel
Flow above the hump
Flow in a contracted section

EXAMPLE

1. Calculate the critical depth and the corresponding

specific energy for a discharge of 5 m3/s in the
following channels:
a) Rectangular channel, b = 2.0 m (yc=0.860m,
Ec=1.290m)
b) Triangular channel,
Ec=2.284m)

0.5

(yc=1.828m,

1. Calculate the bottom width of a channel required

to carry a discharge of 15 m3/s as a critical flow at
a depth of 1.2 m, if the channel section is
rectangular? (B=3.643m)

When do we apply the specific energy

equation?
Channel with a Hump (raised bed)
Channel with Transition (change in width)

What are the assumptions made?

Channel bed is horizontal (neglect )

Frictionless channel (no head loss from friction)
Rectangular channel (can use q)

CHANNEL WITH A HUMP

Subcritical Flow condition
At normal condition,
E1 = E2 + z
As z increases, y2 decreases
until it reaches yc.
Note: E and q is constant

E1

Energy line

E2
y1

yc

y2

TYPICAL CASES FOR SUBCRITICAL

FLOW MOVING ABOVE A HUMP
Case I z < zmax

No change to:
y1
y2 = y2
E1 = E2 + z

Case II z = zmax

No change to:
y1
y2 = yc
E1 = Ec + zmax

Case
III

z > zmax
Choking
condition

y1 changes (y1>
y1)
y2 = yc

E1

Energy line

E2
y1

yc

y2

Why does critical condition remains at Point 2?

Because not possible to have E < Ec
So, energy at upstream section has to be higher (E1
> E1) in order to gain sufficient energy to be able to
flow over the same rate.

CHANNEL WITH A HUMP

Supercritical Flow condition
Note: E and q is constant,
At normal condition,
E1 = E2 + z
As z increases, y2 increases
until it reaches yc.

E1

Energy line

E2

TYPICAL CASES FOR SUPERCRITICAL

FLOW MOVING ABOVE A HUMP
Case I

z < zmax

No change to:
y1
y2 = y2
E1 = E2 + z

Case II

z = zmax

No change to:
y1
y2 = yc
E1 = Ec + zmax

Case III z > zmax

Choking
condition

y1 changes
(y1< y1)
y2 = yc

E1

Energy line

E2

MOMENTUM
EQUATION

MOMENTUM EQUATION
The commonly used momentum equation for open
channel flow problems is the linear-momentum
equation
It is used when:
Impossible to estimate head loss, hL (cannot use
energy equation)
The internal flow is complicated
Concerns with internal forces between two sections

Developed from the principles of Newtons Second

Law.
Change of momentum per unit time in the body of
a flowing channel is equal to the resultant force of all
external forces that acting on a body.

In OCF, the statement can be simplified by identifying

the important terms involved:
Momentum, M = QV
where is the density, Q is the discharge, V is the
average velocity and is the momentum correction
factor.

Forces acting on a
control volume are as
follows,
1. Pressure forces, Fp
2. Friction forces along
the bed of channel, Ff
3. Body force (weight of
the fluid) in the
longitudinal direction,
Wx

Figure 1.17 A control volume bounded by sections 1

and 2, the boundary and a surface lying above the
free surface.

By

the linear-momentum
equation in the longitudinal
direction for a steady flow
discharge of Q,
In which
and
Figure 1.17 A control volume bounded by
sections 1 and 2, the boundary and a surface

HYDRAULICS JUMP
Momentum equation can be applied to analyze the
hydraulic jump.
What is a hydraulic jump?
It is a sudden transition from a rapid flow
(supercritical) to slow flow (subcritical).
Why momentum equation?
There is a significance amount of energy loss in
the hydraulic jump. Therefore, the energy
equation is not suitable to analyze the situation.

Examples of Hydraulic Jumps

Hydraulic Jump

EXAMPLE
Figure below shows a hydraulic jump in a horizontal
apron aided by a two-dimensional block on the
apron. Obtain an expression for the drag per unit
length of the block. (assume a frictionless, horizontal
channel and hydrostatic pressure distribution at
section 1 and 2)
V
2

y2
V1
P1

y1
1

P2
Fd
2

OOPS
What is
apron?of concrete or
A ground covering
other material used to protect
the underlying earth from water
erosion.

SOLUTION
Forces

are:

acting on a hydraulic jump control volume

1. P1 Pressure force - (at section 1)

2. P2 Pressure force - (at section 2)
3. Fd Drag force

* Specific weight of liquid

by

momentum equation, in the direction of flow

where =discharge per unit width =

Assuming

* Can assume or equals to 1 when the channels are straight, prismatic and uniform flow or GVF takes place

TODAYS OUTCOMES
1

CONTINUITY EQUATION

ENERGY EQUATION
Specific Energy
Critical Flows

MOMENTUM EQUATION
Hydraulics Jump

WAIT
(5%) QUIZ 1
7th June 2016
13.02.06
2.05pm