Lecture 6

Shot

Receiver

Seismic Record

Trough

Peak

Layer 1
Layer 1
Layer 2

Impedance
Increase

Layer 2
Layer 2
Layer 3

Layer 3

Layer 3
Layer 4

Layer 4

Impedance
Decrease

Impedance
Increase

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Impedance = Velocity * Density

Peak over Trough is an
Increase in Impedance

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

The Ideal Seismic Response

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick
1 meter

Increase in Impedance

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Decrease in Impedance

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Scale for Seismic Data

Lamina
Lamina Sets
Beds
Bed Sets
Parasequences
Parasequence Sets
Sequences
Sequence Sets

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Although seismic data

can not image smallscale stratal units, it
can image mid- to
large-scale units
The big advantage of
seismic data is areal
coverage

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Predominantly

Shale

Predominantly

Sand

Predominantly

Shale

10 m
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Wave Equation Lingo

Rarefaction

Compression

A = Amplitude

= Wavelength
length, ft or m

P = Period
time

Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform Duration
to travel 1 wavelength
time
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Basic Equations
1. P = 1 / f
2.

=V*P = V/f

3. d = V * T / 2

where
P = Period
V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
= Wavelength T = time

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot

Seismic
Record

Receiver

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Increase in
impedance

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

Increase in
impedance
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

1.4

Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Imped
Low

Shot

Receiver

Reflection
Coefficients

High

C
O
N
V
O
L
U
T
I
O
N

I1 = 1 * V1
I2 =

* V2

I3 =

* V3

I4 =

* V4

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Pulse Seismic
Trace

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

That Pesky Pulse

If the frequency content (Bandwidth)
is very large, then the pulse
approaches a spike and we can
resolve fine-scale stratigraphy

Reflection
Coefficients

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Ideal Seismic
Pulse
Trace

FW
Schroeder

Typically the frequency

content is limited to about
10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40),
which limits our resolution

Typical Seismic
Pulse
Trace

L 6 Seismic

Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients

Minimum Phase
Causal (real no motion
before wave arrives)
Front loaded
Peak arrival time is
frequency dependant
RC is at the first
displacement; maximum
displacement (peak or
trough) is delayed by

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients

Zero Phase
Not Causal (not real, since
there is motion before the
wave arrives)
Symmetric about RC
Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Polarity Minimum Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is:
Negative # on the tape
Displayed as a Trough

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Polarity Zero Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is:
Positive # on the tape
Displayed as a Peak

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

What Causes Reflections?

Any interface between
bodies with different
acoustic properties
Acoustic properties
define Impedance (I) , in
which
I = velocity *
density

Shot

Receiver

Layer 1
Layer 2

Boundary

Small change in impedance small

reflection
Large change in impedance large
reflection
L 6 Seismic
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FW
Schroeder

Time for Two Short Exercises

6a. Calculating Some
Reflection Coefficients

6b. Calculating Frequency

& Wavelength
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Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient I
+I
below

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above

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient I
+I
below

above

4320 - 3400
4300 + 3400

Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is

transmitted
FW

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Schroeder

0.119

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s
Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Shale

Velocity = 2600 m/s

Density = 2.1 gm/cc

Carbonate

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient I
+I
below

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above

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface
Velocity = 2000 m/s
Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Shale

Velocity = 2600 m/s

Density = 2.1 gm/cc
I = 2600 * 2.1 = 5460

Carbonate

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient I
+I
below

above

5460 - 3400
5460 + 3400

Of the incident energy, 23% is reflected, 77% is

transmitted
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FW
Schroeder

0.232

L 6 Seismic

Exercise 6b: Frequency &

Wavelength

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Data & Stratal Surfaces

Seismic reflections parallel stratal surfaces
Reflection terminations mark unconformities

Changes in reflection character indicate facies chang

Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities

Facies Changes

Fluvial Incised Valley Fill

Coastal Plain

Foreshore/Upper Shoreface

Lower Shoreface - Offshore

Slope - Basin

Submarine Fan

Estuarine

Condensed Interval

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Why Stratal Surfaces?

Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a
change
in acoustic properties (I = v)
Consider: Where can there be sharp changes in
impedance?
horizontally as lithofacies change?
vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

Very Gradational Lateral

Changes in Physical Properties

Can Have Abrupt Vertical

Changes in Physical Properties
Especially at PS Boundaries
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Not Every Reflection is Strata!

There are other seismic reflections out
there that may not be stratigraphic in
origin
Fluid
Contacts
Fault Planes

Multiples
Others

Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities
W

Facies Changes

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Another Exercise
6c. Generating
a Modeled
Seismic Trace

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Exercise 6c: A Synthetic Trace

The Pulse
3 Ref. Coeff.
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic