MODULE 2

BEHAVIOUR OF INDIVIDUALS

Organizational behaviour is
traditionally considered as the
study of human behaviour in
the work place.

The following diagram

presents the various individual
factors affecting the final
behaviour of a person.

FOUNDATION OF INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOR
Biographical characteristics
1. Age: two distinct age group, Younger or Older.
2. Gender: Male or Female.
3. Race: individual favor race which affect
employment decision.
4. Social Groups: focus for scheduled cast, tribes
and backward classes (Reservation benefits)
5. Tenure: duration of time in the job.
6. Religion: people of different religion faith
conflict, so manger need to be sensitive.

ABILITY

Ability refers to an individuals capacity to

perform the various tasks in a job.

An individual's overall abilities are essentially

made up of the following factors:
1. Intellectual Abilities
2. Physical Abilities

VARIOUS TYPES OF ABILITIES

Ability
Physical Abilities
Strength factor
Dynamic
Trunk
Static
Explosive
Flexibility factor
Extent
Dynamic
Other factor
Body Co-ordination
Balance
Stamina

Nature & Types

Ability & Job fit

Intellectual Abilities
1. Number Aptitude
(Mathematics)
2. Verbal Comprehension
(English)
3. Perceptual Speed,
4. Reasoning,
5. Deductive Reasoning,
6. Spatial Visualization,
7. Memory

ABILITY

Intellectual abilities: the capacity to

perform mental activities, i.e. thinking,
reasoning and problem solving.
Different test like intelligent quotient (IQ)
tests, Common Admission Tests (CAT),
Management programs admission tests
(GMAT), law (LSAT), and medical (MCAT),
etc.

DIMENSIONS OF INTELLECTUAL
ABILITY
1. Number

aptitude:ability related to calculating speed and

accuracy.
2. Verbal comprehension:ability to understand what is read or
heard.
3. Perceptual speed:ability to understand the similarities and
differences, quickly and accurately.
4. Inductive reasoning:ability to identify logical sequence of
problem and provide solution, moving from particular to
general.
5. Deductive reasoning:ability touse logic and assess the
implication of an argument, moving from general to
particular.
6. Spatial visualization:ability to imagine and visualize about an
object or situation.
7. Memory:ability to retain and recall past experience.

PHYSICAL ABILITIES
Nine Basic physical abilities:
Strength Factor:
1. Dynamic Strength: ability to exert muscular force on
regular basis
2. Trunk strength; ability to exert muscular force using
trunk or abdominal muscles.
3. Static strength: ability to exert force against external
objects,
4. Explosive strength: ability to expend maximum energy
to one or series of acts in minimum time.
. Flexibility or Agility Factors:
5. Extent flexibility: ability to move the trunk and back
muscles as far as possible.
6. Dynamic Flexibility: ability to make rapid, flexing
movements.

PHYSICAL ABILITIES
Nine Basic physical abilities:
Other factors:
7. Body coordination: ability to coordinate all
parts of body.
8. Balance: ability to maintain balance while
moving muscles of body.
9. Stamina: ability to regularly exert energy
for long period of time

ABILITY JOB FIT

Ability Job Fit is the situation when the

ability of the individual matches with the
requirement of the job.
This situation can be determined by
analyzing all the ability need as per the
requirement of the job.

VALUES, BELIEFS, ATTITUDES

Values :
Global beliefs that guide actions and
judgments across a variety of
situations.
a specific mode of conduct or end-state
of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse
mode of conduct or end-state of
existence.
Values and attitudes are similar in that
they both are beliefs.
Values reflect a persons sense of what
is right, good or desirable and what

TYPES OF VALUES

Values can be classified into two broad

categories:
Terminal values.
Instrumental values.
Terminal values : Terminal values reflect a
persons preferences or beliefs about the
ends to be achieved.
Terminal values are the goals individuals
would like to achieve during their lifetime.
E.g. Comfortable life, family security, freedom.
Instrumental values : Instrumental values
reflect a persons preferences or beliefs about
the means to be achieved.
Instrumental values represent how they

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN
VALUES
BY GORDON ALLPORT

Theoretical values : Interest in the discovery of

truth through reasoning and systematic thinking.

Economic values : Interest in usefulness and

practically including the accumulation of wealth.

Aesthetic values : Interest in beauty, form and

artistic harmony.

Social values : Interest in people, and love as an

enduring pert of a human relationships.

Political values : Interest in gaining power and

influencing other people.

Religious values : Interest in unity and in

understanding the cosmos as a whole.

ATTITUDE

Attitude:
An attitude is a psychological
tendency expressed by evaluating a
particular entity with some degree of
favor or disfavor.
Attitudes are evaluative statementseither favorable or unfavorable
concerning objects, people, or events.
Components of attitudes:
Cognitive or informational component.
Affective or emotional component.
Conative or behavioral component.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
My supervisor is unfair

Perceptions, values,
opinions & Evaluative
beliefs

1.
Cognitive component:
Why we feel that way?

Friendly,
aggressive,
hostile

3.
Conative component:
How we intend to behave
towards the situation?

I am going to request
for a transfer

2.
Affective component:
How we feel towards the
situation?
Positive,
Neutral or
Negative
A fair supervision is
important to me
I dont like my supervisor

FLOW PROCESS
Beliefs and
values

create

predisposes
Attitudes

Behavior

FEATURES OF ATTITUDE
Attitudes

affect behavior.
Attitudes are not visible.
Attitudes are
acquired/learned.
Attitudes are pervasive.

FOUR FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

Daniel Katz
Americanpsychologist

Daniel Katz has suggested that attitude serves

four functions
Adjustment function: (Adjust to environment)
Capacity

of a person to respond to how they are

treated.

Ego defensive function: (Protect themselves)

Helps

Value expressive function: (Express values &

beliefs)
Helps

us to defend ego.

to incorporate value into behavior.

Knowledge function: (bring order to environment)

Express

the knowledge through attitude.

DETERMINANTS / SOURCES OF
ATTITUDES

The main sources of a persons attitude are

1. Personal

Experience cognitive
component
2. Family- influences initial core of attitudes
3. Peer groups rely on approval
4. Society: Social class, religious affiliation,
culture, language, formal & informal
education.
5. Association: Geographic region, religion,
educational background, race, sex ,age,
income.

FACTORS AFFECTING FORMATION OF

ATTITUDES

Psychological factors:
Education, work, health, religion, politics.
Economic factors:
Economic status, inflation rate, policies of
government, economic conditions.
Social factors:
Language, culture, norms, values, beliefs.
Political factors:
Ideologies of political parties, political stability,
behavior of political leaders.
Organizational factors:
Nature of job, fellow employees, quality of
supervision, monetary rewards, trade unions,
informal groups, organization policies.

CHANGE OF ATTITUDE

Persuasive communication:
Most common method used to change
attitude.
Effort of persuasion involve following four
elements
1. Source:
Directs some sort of message to the target.
2. Communication:
The actual message that is directed to the
target person or group.
3. Target or Audience:
Person or persons who receive the
message.
4. Channel or medium of communication:

PERSUASION THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

Tradition view of persuasion answers How & When of

persuasion - Yale Approach.
Cognitive approach explain Why people change their
attitude in response to persuasive communication.
Congruent & Incongruent changes (direction of
change)

STRATEGIES TO CHANGE ATTITUDE

Provide new information.
Using fear.
Influence by friends and peers.
Resolving discrepancies.
Two-sided approach.
BARRIERS TO CHANGE ATTITUDE
Prior commitments.
Insufficient information.

PREJUDICES

Prejudice means prejudgment.

People hold a certain attitude
towards some target, which has
become fixed in such a way that
the person is reluctant to change.

JOB RELATED ATTITUDES

Job satisfaction.
Job involvement.
Organizational commitment.

JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is the extent to which a

person derives pleasure out of his job.

It is the overall attitude of the person

towards his or her job.

Factors affecting job satisfaction

Work

itself: provides with interesting tasks,

opportunities for learning, chance to accept
responsibility.
Pay: financial remuneration received.
Promotion opportunities: advancement in
hierarchy.
Supervision: technical support and behavioral
support.
Co-workers: technically proficient and socially
supportive.

MEASURING JOB
SATISFACTION

JDI Job Descriptive index (Smith, Kendall and

Hublin)
is

the most widely used attitude measurement

tool.

Questionnaire

contains five job facets. Satisfaction with

Work itself, Pay, Promotion opportunities, Supervision,
Co-workers.

MSQ - Minnesota Satisfaction questionnaire

(Weiss, Davis, England and Lofquist)
Next

popular one
Measures twenty different facets including creativity,
independence, supervision-human relations, supervisiontechnical and working conditions.

Faces Scale - (Kunis)

Single

item scale measures global job satisfaction .

Points are drawing of human faces ranging from extreme
pleasant to extreme unpleasant expressions.

INCREASING JOB SATISFACTION

JOB SATISFACTION
Job Enrichment

Job Rotation

Vertical expansion of tasks

Job Enlargement
Horizontal expansion of tasks

JOB ENRICHMENT
Vertical expansion of tasks includes:
Decision making: increase operator
authority
Accountability: Reward based on
performance.
Responsibility : increase operator
responsibility

CLASS ASSIGNMENT
Answer each question not more than one
A4 sheet
(both sides).
1. Define attitudes. How attitude differ
from opinions and beliefs? How
attitudes affect behaviour.
2. How do attitudes form? What are the
characteristics and function of
attitudes?
3. Can attitudes be changed? What is the
method and What are the factors to be
taken into account in attitude change?
(Last date of submission 27 June 2016.)

PERSONALITY
PERSONALITY :
Personality can be defined as relatively
stable set of characteristics that
influences an individuals behavior. Two
main determinants of personality are
heredity and environment.
Heredity :
Those factors that were determined at
conception (by nature).
E.g. : Physical stature, gender, facial
features, temperament, muscle composition
and reflexes, energy level are either
completely or partially influenced by parents.

 Heredity approach argues that personality

is the molecular structure of the genes,
located in the chromosomes.
Environment :
Environment a person is exposed to(by
nurture).
E.g.: Family influences, cultural influences,
educational influences, and other
environmental forces shape personality.

MAJOR PERSONALITY
ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB

Authoritarianism
Locus of Control
Machiavellianism
Introversion vs. Extroversion
Achievement oriented
Self-Esteem
Risk-Taking
Self-Monitoring
Type A & Type B Personality

MAJOR PERSONALITY
ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB

Authoritarianism: Rigid, oppose use of

subjective feelings, high moral values and
believes, high conformity.
Locus of Control: The degree to which
people believe they are masters of their
own fate.
Internal locus of control - Individuals who
believe that they control what happens to
them.
External locus of control - Individuals who
believe that what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces such as luck or
chance.

MAJOR PERSONALITY
ATTRIBUTES

Machiavellianism: Degree to which an

individual is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends
can justify means.
Achievement oriented: varies among
people and which can be used to predict
certain behavior. They try to do things
better.
Introversion vs. Extroversion: refers to an
individuals degree of sociability and
interpersonal orientation.
Introverts are shy , quiet and retiring.
Extrovert are expressive and social.
Self-Esteem: Individuals degree of liking or
disliking themselves.

MAJOR PERSONALITY
ATTRIBUTES

Risk-Taking:
High Risk-Taking Managers
Make quicker decisions using less information.
Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations.
Low Risk-Taking Managers
Are slower to make decisions needs more
information.
Exist in larger organizations with stable
environments.
Self-Monitoring: An individuals ability to adjust his
or her behavior to external situations.

High Self-Monitors

Receive better performance ratings.

Likely to emerge as leaders.

MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES

Type A
Are always moving,
walking, and eating
rapidly.
Feel impatient with the
rate at which most
events take place.
Strive to think or do two
or more things at once.
Cannot cope with leisure
time.
Are obsessed with
numbers, measuring
their success in terms
of how many or how
much of everything they
acquire.

Type B
Never suffer from a
sense of time urgency
with its accompanying
impatience.
Feel no need to
display or discuss
either their
achievements or
accomplishments.
Play for fun and
relaxation, rather than
to exhibit their
superiority at any cost.
Can relax without
guilt.

PERSONALITY THEORIES
Four major theories of personalities are
Trait theory.
Psychodynamic theory.
Humanistic theory / Self theory.
Social Learning Theory.

TRAIT THEORY
Raymond Bernard Cattell
British and Americanpsychologist

Gordon Willard Allport

Americanpsychologist

In order to understand individuals - break

down behavior patterns into a series of
observable traits.
Combining these traits into a group forms
an individuals personality.
G. Allport identified 17583 traits in
defining personality and R. Cattell
generalized it from 171 to 16.
Trait is something common to all
humans but they vary in amount. They

Cattell's Sixteen Personality Traits

TRAIT THEORY
All traits can be reduced to five basic global
traits
(Big Five traits)
Extraversion : outgoing, talkative, sociable &
assertive.
Agreeableness : Trusting, good natured, cooperative, soft-hearted.
Conscientiousness : Dependable, responsible,
achievement oriented, persistent.
Emotional stability : Relaxed, secure,
unworried.
Openness to experience : Intellectual,
imaginative, curious, broad-minded.

TRAIT THEORY

William Herbert Sheldon

Americanpsychologist

Sheldon classified personality into 3

types based on type theory concept i.e.
physical body determines the trait. They are
Endomorphic : Soft and spherical more
love, comfort, affection, relaxed etc.
Mesomorphic : Tough and muscular risk
taking, noisy, adventurous.
Ectomorphic : Thin and tall self restricted,
lot of inhibitions, self conscious.

CRITICISM
Simply identifying trait is note enough;
instead personality is dynamic and not
stable.
Ignore the influence of situations.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
Sigismund Schlomo Freud
Austrian neurologist
Founding father ofpsychoanalysis

Emphasizes on the unconscious influences on

behavior.
Sigmund Freud emphasizes the interaction
between three elements of personality:
Id , Ego, Superego
Id: characterized by unconscious urges and
desires.
Innate, primitive, biological drives of man.
Irrational, selfish, unrealistic, impulsive
dimension of personality.
It works under pleasure principle- immediate
gratification.
Unconscious - inaccessible warehouse of

 Ego: characterized by conscious.

It compromises.
Ego develops to mediate between Id and
realities of the world.
Control Id demands.
The result is the individuals use of reason in
dealing with realities of the word.
Rational, mediating dimension of personality.
Central control system of personality.
It works under reality principle.
Conscious - all things we are aware of at any
given moment. Information in your immediate
awareness.

Superego: characterized by Preconscious.

Contains values and the should and
should not's of the personality.
Moralistic, judgmental, perfectionist
dimension of personality.
Strives to inhibit desires which are
unethical or immoral.
It works under idealistic principle.
There is an ongoing conflict between id
and superego. Ego manage the conflict
between id and superego.
Preconscious - everything that can, with a
little effort, be brought into consciousness.

HUMANISTIC THEORY
SELF THEORY

Daryl J. Bem
Social psychologist

The personality theory that emphasis

individual growth and improvement.
Personality is people centered and focus on
individual's view of the world.
Contributes understanding of self to
personality theory and contends that selfconcept is the most important part of
individuals personality.
1. Self Image - Belief is Fact, What I am
2. Ideal Self What one would like to be, expect to be
more than one
3. Looking self How others perceive or consider,
how external conditions see us.
4. Real Self What one actually is.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura
AmericanProfessor & Psychologist

Albert Bandura (1973)

Learning takes place through observation
and sensorial experiences
Learning From Models
1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed
activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new
learning

PERCEPTION

An unique interpretation of a situation

When you changethe way you look at
things, the things you look at change.

A process by which individuals organize and

interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their
environment.

Peoples behavior is based on their

perception of what reality is, not on
reality itself.

The world as it is perceived is the world that

is behaviorally important.

Perception is how we view and interpret

the events and situations in the world about
us.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

PERCEPTION

PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Organization
Input
Selection

Interpretation

Outputs

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISING
Principles of grouping / Gestalt laws
of grouping

Figure and ground

Principle of similarity
Principle of proximity
Principle of continuity
Principle of closure
Principle of symmetry

FIGURE AND GROUND

Similarity

Closure

Proximity

Continuity

Symmetry

The Vertical lines are both the

same length and the center circles
are both the same size.

WAVY SQUARES? NO!

The background of concentric

circles makes the squares appear
distorted.

Hering Illusion
German physiologist Ewald Hering

Gradient Illusion
Simultaneous contrast illusion

Count the F"s in this passage

Have you seen this? Try to read it.

PERCEPTUAL AMBIGUITY

WORD COLOR TEST

In this test DO NOT READ the
words,
say aloud the COLOR of each
word.

YELLOW BLUE ORANGE

BLACK RED GREEN
PURPLE YELLOW RED
ORANGE GREEN BLACK
BLUE RED PURPLE

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Attribution theory Theory that explains

how individuals pinpoint the causes
of the behavior of themselves and
others.
Attribution can be made to an internal
source of responsibility (within
individuals control) Internal Attribution.
Attribution can be made to an external
source of responsibility (outside
individuals control) external
Attribution.

EXAMPLES

Performed well in an examination.

causes
studied so hard internal attribute.
copied the test external attribute.
easy test - external attribute.
because of luck - external attribute.
(Usually individuals attribute positive
results to internal attribute and negative
results to external attribute.)

Attribution patterns differ among

individuals.
It can leads to motivation or
depression or nothing.
Achievement oriented individuals
attribute their success to ability and
is motivated but failure oriented
individuals attribute their failure to
inability and is depressed.
Attribution theory has many
application in work place.

FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION
ERROR

The tendency to underestimate the

influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making
judgments about the behavior of others.

We blame people first, not the situation

E.g.: Poor performance by sales agent.

Sales manager attribute the poor
performance of sales agent to laziness
rather than to the innovative product line
introduced by the competitor.

SELF-SERVING BIAS

The tendency for individuals to

attribute their own successes to
internal factors while putting the
blame for failures on external
factors.
It is our success but their failure
E.g.: At the time of Iraq war, white
house declared Mission
Accomplished, but the weapon of
mass destruction was not found and
also the war was not over. Then the
White House rushed to blame
intelligence failure.

BARRIERS TO PERCEPTION
SHORTCUTS TO JUDGE OTHERS
CORRECTLY

Selective Perception (Perceptual Selectivity)

- People selectively interpret what they see
on the basis of their interests,
background, experience, and attitudes.
Since we cannot assimilate all that we
observe we take in bits and pieces
chosen according to our interests,
background, experience, and attitudes.
Selective Perception permits us to speedread others but it has a risk of drawing
wrong conclusions or an inaccurate
picture about the perceived person.

Halo Effect - Drawing a general

impression about an individual on the basis
of a single characteristic.
Contrast Effects - Evaluating a persons
characteristics that are affected by
comparisons with other people recently
encountered, who rank higher or lower
on the same characteristics.
Projection - The tendency to attribute ones
own characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping - Judging someone on the basis
of ones perception of the group to
which the person being perceived
belongs . A prevalent and often useful but
not always accurate and cannot be
generalized.

First-impression error The tendency

to form lasting opinions about an
individual based on individual based
on initial perception.
Implicit personality theory
Opinions formed about other
people that are based on our own
mini-theories about how people
behave.
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion
effect) The situation in which our
expectations about people affect
our interaction with them in such
a way that our expectations are

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

The process by which individuals try

to control the impression others
have of them.
It is usual in organization when
individuals compete for jobs, during
performance evaluation, salary
increases.
Some impression management
techniques are self-enhancing,
name-dropping, managing ones
appearance, self-descriptions,
other-enhancing(flattery, favors).

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Self-enhancing focus on enhancing others

impressions of the person.
Name-dropping mentioning an association with
important people in the hopes of improving ones
image.
Managing ones appearance try to create a good
appearance ( interview).
Self-descriptions statements about ones
characteristics.
Other-enhancing focus on the individual whose
impression is to be managed.
Flattery compliments are given to an
individual in order to gain his or her approval.
Favors agreement with someones opinion.

BAD IMPRESSION

Some create impression management to

intentionally look bad at work.
Decreasing performance, skipping work,
displaying bad attitude, broadcasting
ones limitation.
To avoid additional work or task.
As long as impressions conveyed are accurate,
it is beneficial to the organization.
If the impressions are found to be false,
negative overall impression may result.
Excessive impressions management can
lead to the perception that the user is
manipulative or insincere.

ASSIGNMENT
1.

2.

3.

What are the underlying principle and

factors of perception that affect an
individual?
Changethe way you look at things,
the things you look at change. What
are the bias and errors in perception.
What are the attributes of personality?
What are the various theories that
elucidate personality?

(Last date of submission on OB Internal exam date.)

BLESSEDTERESA OF
CALCUTTA
(MOTHER TERESA)

If your eyes are positive,

you will love the world,
if your tongue is positive,
the world will love you

THANK YOU