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Learning Objectives
Understand the basic operation of CROP scintillation
counters and photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and their
use in measuring cosmic ray air showers
Understand how light is generated in a scintillator
Understand how light is transmitted to a PMT
Understand how a PMT generates an electric signal
Be able to hook up a scintillation counter to its high
voltage and an oscilloscope for viewing signals
Be able to identify light leaks in a scintillation counter
Be able to observe scintillation counter signals using
an oscilloscope and identify cosmic ray muons
Be able to discuss scintillation counter performance
in terms of gain, efficiency and attenuation length
Outline
Introduction
Light Generation in Scintillators
Light Collection
Optical Interfaces and Connections
Photodetectors and photomultiplier tubes
Performance and Exercises
References
Introduction
Scintillation counters are multi-purpose particle detectors
used in many experimental physics applications
Used for charged particle detection (positive or negative),
but also neutral particles (photons, neutrons),
although light-generation mechanisms are different for
charged and neutral particles
Basic sequence -- light generation by particle passing
through scintillator material, light collection,
photodetector turns light into electric signal
Scintillation Counter Properties
Fast time response -- light generated almost immediately
after particle passes through scintillator, photodetectors
give fast electric signal
Can count number of particles using pulse height.
The larger the signal size, the greater the number of
particles
Position information
Based on size of active scintillator material
Passage of
charged particle
generates light
in scintillator
Charged particle
Light guide
transmits light
to photodetector
Introduction
Examples from High Energy Physics experiments
at particle accelerators
Hodoscope -- an array of several counters covering
a large area
Veto counters -- for particles you dont want to
measure
Calorimetry -- measuring a particles total energy
Triggering -- a fast signal which indicates an
interesting event to record
Examples from cosmic ray experiments
CASA
KASCADE
Anti-protons
Photomultiplier
tube
Scintillator wedge
Foil wrapping
Counters arranged
as pizza slices
Electronics card
Box bottom
Introduction
Other uses of scintillation counters -- biological research,
medical applications (PET scans)
Use of scintillation counters in CROP
Several counters firing at once indicates extended air
shower -- on one school or inter-school
Pulse heights related to number of particles in shower and
energy of primary cosmic ray
Relative arrival times related to primary cosmic ray
incident direction
PET Scans
(Positron Emission Tomography)
3-D image
Scintillating crystal detector
and photomultiplier
Cross
Section
Electrons excited
to higher energy
levels when a
charged particle
passes, absorbing
part of its energy
Electron ground
state
Electrons drop back
to ground state,
emitting fluorescence
or scintillation light
3. Light Collection
Purpose -- Direct as much generated light as possible to
the photodetector
Need for making counters light tight
Light transmission within scintillator
Reflections from surfaces, total internal reflection
Transmission through surfaces
Critical angle
Importance of smooth polished surfaces
Use of reflective coverings
(foil, white paint, white paper, black paper)
Multiple bounces (many!)
Ray-tracing simulation programs
Attenuation of light in scintillator
Scintillator
Light
rays
Photomultiplier tubes
Air
Scintillator material
Light totally internally reflected for incident angle
greater than critical which depends on optical
properties of scintillator and air
Scintillator
Air
3. Light Collection
Different light collection schemes
Different types of plastic light guides
Air light guides (KASCADE)
CASA scheme
Not optimal, PMT glued onto surface
Wavelength-shifting side bars
Embedded wavelength-shifting optical fibers
Connected to clear optical fibers
Can transport light over long distance
Other fiber optics applications
Laproscopic surgery
Telecommunications
Laproscopic surgery
Photomultiplier
33 kg of liquid scintillator
Argon-filled space
(better light transmission than air)
Optical Fibers
Fiber core and cladding optimized to
prevent leakage of light out of the fiber
95% transmission over 1 km
If this were true for ocean water, you could
clearly see ocean bottom
Transmission modes within optical fibers
To photo-detector
Wavelehgth-shifting
optical fiber
Scintillator planes
Each incident
electron ejects
about 4 new
electrons at each
dynode stage
Multiplied signal
comes out here
Vacuum inside
tube
An applied voltage
difference between
dynodes makes
electrons accelerate
from stage to stage
The Photocathode
Incoming photons expel electrons from the metallic
surface of the photocathode via the photoelectric effect.
The effect was discovered by
Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and
explained by Albert Einstein
in 1905.
According to Einstein's theory,
light is composed of discrete
particles of energy, or quanta,
called PHOTONS. When photons with enough energy
strike the photocathode, they liberate electrons that have
a kinetic energy equal to the energy of the photons less
the work function (the energy required to free the
electrons from a particular material).
Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his 1905 paper
explaining the photoelectric effect. What were the other
two famous Einstein papers from 1905?
Theory of special relativity
Explanation of Brownian motion
The Photocathode
Photocathode composition
Semiconductor material made of antimony (Sb) and
one or more alkalai metals (Cs, Na, K)
Thin, so ejected electrons can escape
Definition of photocathode quantum efficiency,
200 nm
Wavelength of light
700 nm
Represents a dynode
- - 100 Volts
+ + +
+ + +
Represents the next
dynode
Output signal
to oscilloscope
Photocathode
Dynodes
Tube body
Ground
High voltage
supply
Positive
Capacitors
(which store
charge) needed
for final stages
when there are
many electrons
Current flows
through resistor
chain for voltage
division
Current, I
(amperes)
Battery
Vbatt = 9 Volts
+
-
4 R
a
2 R
Voltmeter
here
b
V
R
Vbatt
9 Volts
Current in circuit : I
1.5 Amps
R1 R 2
6
Vacross R 2 I R 2 (1.5 Amps)(2 ) 3 Volts
Ohm' s law : V I R or I
Plastic scintillator
10 nsec / division
References
1. Introduction to Experimental Particle Physics by
Richard Fernow, Cambridge University Press, 1986,
ISBN 0-521-30170-7 (paperback), Chapter 7, pages 148-177
(includes exercises)
2. Photomultiplier Manual, Technical Series PT-61, 1970,
RCA Corporation
3. Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics by
W. R. Leo, Springer-Verlag, Germany, 1994,
ISBN 3-540-57280-5, Chapters 7-9, pages 157-214
4. Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition,
by Glenn F.Knoll, Wiley 2000, ISBN 0-417-07338-5,
Chapters 8-10, pages 219 - 306
Different
window
materials
200 nm
Wavelength of light
700 nm
Observe:
20% transmission typical for 400 nm light
Fused silica extends transmission into lower wavelengths
Less than 400 nm is ultraviolet light
Development Questions
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Accompanying text
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