Highschool Physics Measurement and Uncertainties

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement
1.2 Measurement and uncertainties

The SI system of fundamental and derived units
1.2.1 State the fundamental units in the SI
system.
1.2.2 Distinguish between fundamental and derived
units and give examples of derived units.
1.2.3 Convert between different units of
quantities.
1.2.4 State units in the accepted SI format.
1.2.5 State values in scientific notation and in
multiples of units with appropriate prefixes.

The fundamental units in the SI system are
mass
length
time
temperature
electric current
luminosity
mole
measured
measured
measured
measured
measured
measured
measured
in
in
in
in
in
in
in
kilograms (kg)
meters (m)
seconds (s)
kelvin degrees (K)
amperes (A)
candela (cd)
moles (mol)
FYI
In chemistry you will no doubt use the mole, the
meter, the second, and probably the kelvin.
You will also use the gram. In physics we use
the kilogram (meaning 1000 grams).

The international prototype of the kilogram was
sanctioned in 1889. Its form is a cylinder with
diameter and height of about 39 mm. It is made of
an alloy of 90 % platinum and 10 % iridium. The
IPK has been conserved at the BIPM since 1889,
initially with two official copies. Over the
years, one official copy was replaced and four
have been added.
FYI
One meter is about a
yard or three feet.
One kilogram is about
2.2 pounds.
One second is about
one second.

Derived quantities have units that are combos of
the fundamental units. For example
Speed - measured in meters per second (m/s).
Acceleration - measured in meters per second
per second (m/s2).
FYI
SI stands for Systme
International and was a
standard body of
measurements created shortly
after the French Revolution.
The SI system is pretty
much the world standard in
units.

Since the quantities we will be working with can
be very large and very small, we will use the
prefixes that you have learned in previous
classes.
Power of 10
Prefix Name
Abbreviation
10-12
pico
p
10-9
nano
n
10-6
micro
10-3
milli
m
10-2
centi
c
103
kilo
k
106
mega
M
109
giga
G
1012
tera
T

In the sciences, you must be able to convert from
one set of units (and prefixes) to another.
We will use the multiplication by the wellchosen one method of unit conversion.
EXAMPLE: Suppose the rate of a car is 36 mph, and
it travels for 4 seconds. What is the distance
traveled in that time by the car?
SOLUTION:
Distance is rate times time, or d = rt.
FYI
d = rt
Sometimes the units,
(4 s)
though correct, do not
d = 36 mi
1
1 h
convey much meaning to
d = 144 mis/h
us. See next example!

In the sciences, you must be able to convert from
one set of units (and prefixes) to another.
We will use the multiplication by the wellchosen one method of unit conversion.
EXAMPLE: Convert 144 mis/h into units that we
can understand.
SOLUTION:
Use well-chosen ones as multipliers.
d =
144 mis
1 h 1 min
60 s
h
60 min
0.04 mi
1
5280 ft
mi
= 0.04 mi
= 211.2 ft

In IB units are presented in European format
rather than American.
The accepted method has no fraction slash.
Instead, denominator units are written in the
numerator with negative exponents.
EXAMPLE: A cars speed is measured as 40 km/hr
and its acceleration is measured as 1.5 m/s2.
Rewrite the units in the accepted IB format.
SOLUTION:
Denominator units just come to the numerator as
negative exponents. Thus
FYI
40 km/hr is written 40 km hr-1.
Live with it,
1.5 m/s2 is written 1.5 m s-2.
people!

You can use units to prove that equations cannot
be valid.
EXAMPLE: Given that distance is measured in
meters, time in seconds and acceleration in
meters per second squared, show that the formula
d = at does not work and thus is not valid:
SOLUTION:
Start with the formula, then substitute the units
on each side. Cancel to where you can easily
compare left and right sides:
FYI
d = at
The last line shows that the units
m
m =
s
are inconsistent on left and right.
s2
m
Thus the equation cannot be valid.
m =

You can use units to prove that equations cannot
be valid.
PRACTICE: Decide whether each of the following
formulas is dimensionally consistent. The
information you need is that v is measured in
m/s, a is in m/s2 and t is in s.
(a) v = at2
(b) v2 = ax
(c) x = at2
Inconsistent
Consistent
Consistent
FYI
The process of substituting units into formulas
to check consistency is called dimensional
analysis.
DA can be used only to show the invalidity of a
formula. (b) and (c) both checked out but neither
is correct. Should be v2 = 2ax and x = (1/2)at2.

Uncertainty and error in measurement
1.2.6 Describe and give examples of random and
systematic errors.
1.2.7 Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
1.2.8 Explain how the effects of random errors
may be reduced.
1.2.9 Calculate quantities and results of
calculations to the appropriate number of
significant figures.

Error in measurement is expected because of the
imperfect nature of us and our measuring devices.
For example a typical meter stick has marks at
every millimeter (10-3 m or 1/1000 m).
Thus the best measurement you can get from a
typical meter stick is to the nearest mm.
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length
we wish to measure. How long is it?
0
1 cm
1 mm
SOLUTION:
It is closer to 1.2 cm than 1.1 cm, so we say it
measures 1.2 cm (or 12 mm or 0.012 m).

Error in measurement is expected because of the
imperfect nature of us and our measuring devices.
We say the precision or uncertainty in our
measurement is 1 mm.
As a rule of thumb, use the smallest increment of
your measuring device as your uncertainty.
EXAMPLE: Consider the following line whose length
we wish to measure. How long is it?
FYI
We record
0
1
L = 12 mm 0.5 mm.
1 cm
1 mm
SOLUTION:
It is closer to 1.2 cm than 1.1 cm, so we say it
measures 1.2 cm (or 12 mm or 0.012 m).

Random error is error due to the recorder, rather
than the instrument used for the measurement.
Different people may measure the same line
slightly differently.
You may in fact measure the same line differently
on two different occasions.
Suppose Bob measures the line at 11 mm 0.5 mm
and Ann measures it at 12 mm 0.5 mm.
0
Thus Bob guarantees that the line falls between

10 mm and 12 mm.
Ann guarantees it is between 11 mm and 13 mm.
Both are absolutely correct.

Random error is error due to the recorder, rather
than the instrument used for the measurement.
Different people may measure the same line
slightly differently.
You may in fact measure the same line differently
on two different occasions.
Perhaps the ruler wasnt perfectly lined up.
Perhaps your eye was viewing at an angle rather
than head-on. This is called a parallax error.
FYI
The only way to minimize random error is to take
many readings of the same measurement and to
average them all together.

Systematic error is error due to the instrument
being used for the measurement being out of
adjustment.
For example, a voltmeter might not be zeroed
properly.
A meter stick might be rounded on one end.
Now Bob measures the same line at 13 mm 0.5 mm.
FYI
0
1
Systematic errors
Worn
are hardest to
off
detect and remove.
end
Furthermore, every measurement Bob makes will be
off by that same amount.
FYI: RANDOM ERROR is where accuracy varies in a random manner.
Topic
1: Physics
FYI: SYSTEMATIC
ERROR isand
wherephysical
accuracy variesmeasurement
in a predictable
manner.
1.2
Measurement and uncertainties
The following game where a catapult launches
darts with the goal of hitting the bulls eye
illustrates the difference between precision and
accuracy.
First Trial
Second Trial
Low Precision
Low Precision
Hits not grouped
Hits not grouped
Third Trial
Fourth Trial
High Precision
High Precision
Hits grouped
Hits grouped
Low Accuracy
High Accuracy
Low Accuracy
High Accuracy
Average well
below bulls eye
Average right at
bulls eye
Average well
below bulls eye
Average right at
bulls eye

Significant figures are the reasonable number of
digits that a measurement or a calculation should
have.
For example, as illustrated before, a typical
wooden meter stick has two significant figures.
The number of significant figures in a
calculation reflects the precision of the least
precise of the measured values.

Significant figure rules: Live with them!
438 g
significant
26.42 m
1.7 cm
0.653 L
(2) All zeros between non-zero
225 dm
digits are significant
12060 m
900.43 cm
220 L
(3) Filler zeros to the left of an
understood decimal place are not
60 g
significant
30. cm
(4) Filler zeros to the right of a
0.006 L
decimal place are not significant.
0.8 g
(5) All non-filler zeros to the
8.0 L
right of a decimal place are
60.40 g
significant.
32.000 cm
(1) All non-zero digits are
3
4
2
3
3
4
5
2
1
2
1
1
2
4
5

A calculation must be rounded to the same number
of significant figures as in the measurement with
the fewest significant figures.
EXAMPLE
CALCULATOR
SIG. FIGS
(1.2 cm)(2 cm)
2.4 cm2
2 cm2
(2.75 cm)2
7.5625 cm2
7.56 cm2
5.350 m/2.752 s
1.944040698 m/s
1.944 m/s
(0.0075 n)(6 m)
0.045 nm
0.04 nm
EXAMPLE
CALCULATOR
SIG. FIGS
1.2 cm + 2 cm
3.2 cm
3 cm
2103 m + 2.1 m
2002.1 m
2000 m
5.3010-3m 2.10m -2.0947 m
-2.09 m

Uncertainties in calculated results
1.2.10 State uncertainties as absolute,
fractional and percentage uncertainties.
1.2.11 Determine the uncertainties in results.

Absolute, fractional and percentage
uncertainties.
Absolute error is the raw uncertainty or
precision of your measurement.
EXAMPLE: A student measures the length of a line
with a wooden meter stick to be 11 mm 0.5 mm.
What is the absolute error or uncertainty in her
measurement?
SOLUTION:
The number is the absolute error. Thus 0.5 mm
is the absolute error.
1 mm is also the precision.
1 mm is also the raw uncertainty.

uncertainties.
Fractional error is given by
fractional error
Fractional Error =
Absolute Error
Measured Value
EXAMPLE: A student measures the length of a line

with a wooden meter stick to be 11 mm 1 mm.
What is the fractional error or uncertainty in
her measurement?
SOLUTION:
Fractional error = 1 = .09
11

uncertainties.
Percentage error is given by
percentage error
Percentage Error =
Absolute Error
Measured Value
EXAMPLE: A student measures the

with a wooden meter stick to be
What is the percentage error or
her measurement?
SOLUTION:
Percentage error = 1 100% =
11
100%
length of a line
11 mm 1 mm.
uncertainty in
9%

uncertainties.
PRACTICE: A student measures the voltage of a
calculator battery to be 1.6 V 0.1 V. What are
the absolute, fractional and percentage
uncertainties of his measurement? Find the
precision and the raw uncertainty.
Absolute uncertainty is 0.1 V.
Fractional uncertainty is (0.1)/1.6 = 0.06.
Percentage uncertainty is 0.06(100%) = 6%.
Precision is 0.1 V.
Raw uncertainty is 0.1 V.

To find the uncertainty in a sum or difference
you just add the uncertainties of all the
ingredients.
In formula form we have
uncertainty in sums and differences
If y = a b then y = a + b
FYI
Note that whether or not the calculation has a +
or a -, the uncertainties are ADDED.
Uncertainties DO NOT EVER REDUCE ONE ANOTHER.

To find the uncertainty in a sum or difference
you just add the uncertainties of all the
ingredients.
EXAMPLE: A 9.51 0.15 meter rope ladder is hung
from a roof that is 12.56 0.07 meters above the
ground. How far is the bottom of the ladder from
the ground?
SOLUTION:
y = a b = 12.56 - 9.51 = 3.05 m
y = a + b = 0.15 + 0.07 = 0.22 m
Thus the bottom is 3.05 0.22 m from the ground.

To find the uncertainty in a product or quotient
you just add the percentage or fractional
uncertainties of all the ingredients.
In formula form we have
uncertainty in products and quotients
If y = ab/c then y/y = a/a + b/b + c/c

FYI
Note that whether or not the calculation has a
or a /, the uncertainties are ADDED.
Since you cant add numbers not having the same
units, we use fractional uncertainties for
products and quotients.

To find the uncertainty in a product or quotient
you just add the percentage or fractional
uncertainties of all the ingredients.
EXAMPLE: A car travels 64.7 0.5 meters in 8.65
0.05 seconds. What is its speed during this
time interval?
SOLUTION:
r = d/t = 64.7/8.65 = 7.48 m s-1
r/r = d/d + t/t = .5/64.7 + .05/8.65 = 0.0135
r/7.48 = 0.0135 so that
r = 7.48(0.0135) = 0.10 m s-1.
Finally we can state that the car is traveling
at 7.48 0.10 m s-1.

Uncertainties in graphs
1.2.12 Identify uncertainties as error bars in
graphs.
1.2.13 State random uncertainty as an uncertainty
range (+/-) and represent it graphically as an
error bar.
1.2.14 Determine the uncertainties in the
gradient and intercepts of a straight-line
graph.

Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs.
IB has a requirement that when you conduct an
experiment of your own design, you must have
three trials for each variation in your
independent variable.
This means that for each independent variable you
will gather three values for the dependent
variable.
The three values for each dependent variable will
then be averaged.
The following slide shows a sample of a well
designed table containing all of the information
required by IB.

Sheets
n / no units
n = 0
Rebound Height
hi / cm
hi = 0.2 cm
Average Rebound
Height
h / cm
h = 2.0 cm
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
54.8
55.1
54.6
55
53.4
52.5
49.6
52
50.7
48.7
48.6
49
49.0
47.1
48.5
48
45.9
45.0
44.6
45
10
39.5
41.4
42.4
41
12
35.8
34.0
35.1
35
14
31.1
33.5
33.0
33
16
29.7
27.2
29.3
29
Dependent variable
responding to your changes
Independent variable
manipulated by you
3 trials
Identify uncertainties
as error bars in graphs.

In order to determine the uncertainty in the
dependent variable we reproduce the first two
rows of the previous table:
Sheets
n / no units
n = 0
Rebound Height
hi / cm
hi = 0.2 cm
Average Rebound
Height
h / cm
h = 2.0 cm
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
54.8
55.1
54.6
55
53.4
52.5
49.6
52
The uncertainty in the height was taken to be

half the largest range in the trial data,
corresponding to the row for 2 sheets of paper:
53.4 - 49.6 = 2
2

The size of the error bar in the graph is then up
two and down two at each point in the graph on
the next slide
Error bars go up 2
and down 2 at each
point.

Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and
intercepts of a straight-line graph.
Now to determine the uncertainty in the slope of
a best fit line we look only at the first and
last error bars, as illustrated here for a
mmax
different set of data:
mbest
mmin
mbest m = mbest
mmax - mmin
2
uncertainty
in slope
A sample of a well-done graph for the BounceHeight lab is shown on the next slide:
m =
m =
mmax - mmin
2
1.375 - -1.875
2
m = 0.25
m = -1.6 0.3

Highschool Physics Measurement and Uncertainties

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Highschool Physics Measurement and Uncertainties

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Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

1.2 Measurement and uncertainties

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Thus Bob guarantees that the line falls between

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

FYI: RANDOM ERROR is where accuracy varies in a random manner.

Hits not grouped

Hits not grouped

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

(1.2 cm)(2 cm)

5.3010-3m 2.10m -2.0947 m

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

EXAMPLE: A student measures the length of a line

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

EXAMPLE: A student measures the

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

If y = ab/c then y/y = a/a + b/b + c/c

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

The uncertainty in the height was taken to be

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

Topic 1: Physics and physical measurement

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