The Nature of the Wind

Talk Outline
A. Big picture (Why the wind blows)
B. The global circulation
C. Large-scale force balance above the boundary layer
D. The planetary boundary layer (PBL)
i. wind
ii. friction
iii. turbulence (mechanical and thermal)
iv. structure and stability
E. Wind parameterization
F. Surface characteristics
G. Recent work

atmosphere
3 km

PBL

How do we identify areas/regions that are favorable for

wind energy (commercial)?
Are there certain features associated with wind-prone
regions (e.g., terrain, water, etc.)?

GLOBAL CIRCULATION

General Circulation: Conceptual Models of the Atmosphere

or. How thermal energy is redistibuted in the atmosphere
high

higher tropopause
isobars
?
p = RT

Low pressure
sfc winds
high

sfc winds

Hadley Cell

*non-rotating
*Uniformly covered with H2O
*Sun directly overhead at Eq
*thermally driven

rotating
GOOD MODEL?
ok for tropics maybe

Atmosphere is (in part) thermally driven: e.g. 3 Cell Model

polar front
(surface trough)
sinking
(warms)

convergence L
divergence

rising

60N

sinking

sfc winds

convergence low pressure

Non-Rotating
*Uniformly covered with H2O
*Sun directly overhead at Eq

Polar easterlies
Westerlies

30N

Northeast trades

sinking

H H H

rising

(cools)

H H H
sfc winds
L

Rotating
*Studies show 1-cell model unstable
*development of mid-lat cyclones

*ITCZ (convergence/rising motion)

*Actual airflow more complicated.

Reality

Lower atmosphere is referred to as the troposphere (~ 15 km)

80-90% of the
mass
of
the
atmosphere is in
the troposphere!

The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is confined to the lower

part of the atmosphere (~0-3 km) over which the impact of the
earths surface can be important.

Looking at the lowest 2 km

increasing friction
winds ~ geostrophic

planetary boundary
layer

wind turbine

from Doswell

Above the top of the boundary layer the atmosphere is close to

geostrophic balance
Assume constant PGF
1. parcel begins to accelerate due to pgf

pgf

2. Coriolis kicks in (to right of motion)

3. As parcel accelerates, Coriolis increases

low
high

4. As Coriolis increases balances with pgf

(constant wind no net force)

FCoriolis= pgf
initial unbalanced flow

equilibrium

This balance only applies to straight isobars

Not quite this simple in reality as geostrophic
balance does not describe how we arrive at a
balanced flow!

What influences the wind in the PBL?

Driven by large-scale horizontal pressure/temperature
gradients
Impacted by surface roughness characteristics
Earths rotation (Coriolis)
Diurnal temperature cycle at the surface (PBL stratification)
Entrainment of air above the PBL
Horizontal advection of momentum & heat
Large-scale convergence/divergence
Clouds and precipitation
Topography

Near the sfc (above sfc layer up to 1 km or so)

Ekman Spiral
Ffr

Assume constant PGF

FCoriolis= pgf
1. Parcel in geostrophic balance.
apply friction 2. Apply friction (disrupt balance).
3. Winds decelerate, Coriolis weakens.

high

4. PGF causes flow to deflect toward low

pressure.
5. New force balance established

low
new equilibrium
no net force

This balance only applies to straight isobars

geostrophic
z

x-isobaric toward low pressure

x
isobars

Things like frictional drag, solar heating, and evapotranspiration

generate turbulence of various-sized eddies
DAYTIME BOUNDARY LAYER
thermally driven
high reflection!
more absorption

shear driven (e.g., nighttime,

cloudy/stable daytime conditions)

A good forecast (e.g., wind) is often critically dependent on

accurate estimates of surface fluxes

Residual layer
The residual layer is the part of the atmosphere where mixing still
takes place as a result of air flow (mechanical), although heat
fluxes from the surface of the Earth are small.
The surface layer (~lowest 10% of PBL) is the area most
influenced by surface properties like heat fluxes etc..much of what
Ill be talking about coming up is relevant to this layer only.
10 km

Free Atmosphere

winds are ~ geostrophic

1 km

similar characteristics

Convective
Mixed Layer

Residual
Layer

Mixed
Layer

stable boundary layer

radiational cooling
Noon

Sunset

peak heating

Midnight

surface layer
Sunrise

Noon

The structure of the atmospheric boundary layer wind profile is

influenced by the underlying surface and by the stability of the
PBL

(same stability)
no-slip lower boundary
increasing roughness length
Surface roughness determines to a certain extent the amount of
turbulence production, the surface stress and the shape of the
wind profile.

Stability influences the structure of turbulence. In an unstably

stratified PBL (e.g. during day-time over land with an upward heat
flux from the surface) the turbulence production is enhanced and the
exchange is intensified resulting in a more uniform distribution of
momentum, potential temperature and specific humidity.
In a stably stratified boundary layer (e.g. during night-time over
land) the turbulence produced by shear is suppressed by the
stratification resulting in a weak exchange and a weak coupling with
the surface.
Wind
speed
increases with
height more
rapidly in a
stable PBL

well-mixed

shallow/less mixing

deep mixing

Why parameterize the low-level PBL wind?

The wind profile can be, to a first order, be represented by
simple relationships (combo of empircal and physical!)
Using a mean wind value for a site will mask the variation in wind
speed. As wind power generated depends upon the cube of the wind
speed this may seriously affect the estimate of wind power available over
a year.
This problem may be overcome by describing the wind speed probability
distribution for the year.
Use of statistical tools is difficult (e.g., length of sample can impact on
the results representativeness)
Data would be more useful if it could be described by a mathematical
expression (e.g., for modeling/parameterizations).
Provides estimates of the wind speed (at a level and locale) where none
exists

NWS winds

Power Law Profile (Prandtl)

zR = height of uR (~10 m)
D typically taken to 0
f(friction)

power law should be carefully employed since it is not a physical

representation of the surface layer and does not describe the flow
nearest to the ground very well
(i.e., should only be used for heights above the roughness
elements where the flow is free)

Logarithmic Profile Law (NNBL only)

Turbulent mixing in the atmosphere may be considered in a
similar way to molecular mixing (this is called K theory)
simple laws?
The increase of wind speed with height in the lowest
100m can be described by a logarithmic expression
(i.e., assumes that the wind variation with height is
inversely proportional to the height).
u*/k ~ uRln(zR/z0)
represents the effect of
wind stress on the ground
(depends on sfc and
wind magnitude)

Both the log law and the power law are simplified expressions
of the actual wind profile. They are valid in flat homogeneous
terrain.
They do not include the effects of topography, obstacles or
changes in roughness or stability.
When either of these 2 simple laws do apply, they are intended
for the lower part of boundary layer called the surface layer (i.e.
lowest ~50-100 m or so, but above the canopy and in flat homogeneous terrain).
Wind direction is assumed to change little with height
Effects of earth rotation are assumed to be minimal
Wind structure is determined by surface friction and the vertical
temperature gradient.