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Construction

Techniques,
Equipment and
Practice
UNIT I
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Content

CEMENT : Definition, Grades, Types, Manufacture, Testing

CONCRETE : Definition

Manufacture - batching, mixing , transporting, placing,


compaction, curing, finishing

Testing fresh & hardened (non-destructive)

Quality of concrete

Application

Concrete Chemicals

MIX DESIGN : BIS & ACI method

Cement
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England,
took out a patent on a hydrauliccementthat hecalled portland
cementbecause its color resembled the stone quarried on the
Isle ofPortlandoff the British coast.

Definition

Cement is a substance acts as a binding agent for


materials.

It is obtained by burning the mixture of calcareous material


such as limestone and argillaceous materials such as clay
at a high temperature.

There are two main constituents in portland cement:

Argillaceous materials - clay

Composition of ordinary cement


INGRIDENT

PERCENT

Lime

62

Silica

22

Alumina

Calcium Sulphate

Iron Oxide

Magnesia

Sulphur

Alkalies

Setting action of cement


When water is added to cement, ingredients of cement react
chemically with water and forms chemical compounds which
impart strength to the cement. This is known as setting
action of cement.
Chemical compounds produced are
Tricalcium aluminate
Tricalcium silicate
Dicalcium silicate
Tetra calcium alumino ferrite.

Usually cement attains about 70% of its final strength in 28 days and about
90% of its final strength in one year or so.

Manufacture of portland cement

There are three operations involved in manufacture of


portland cement:
Mixing of raw materials
Burning
Grinding
Mixing of raw materials
There are two methods in mixing of raw materials of
cement:
Dry process
Wet process.

Calcareous
material

Dry
process

Argillaceous
material

crushing

crushing

Fine
grinding

Fine
grinding

storage

storage

Mixing in correct
proportion

Storage tanks for raw


mix
Rotary kiln

Coal
dust

Formation of clinkers
cooler
Grinding of clinkers in
ball mills and tube
mills
Storage in silos
Weighing &packing in
bags
distribution

gypsu
m

Wet
process
Calcareous
material
limestone

Argillaceous
material
clay

crushing

crushing

storage

storage

channel
Grinding mill
Formation of slurry

Correcting basin
Storage tank
pumping

Coal dust

Rotary kiln
Formation of
clinkers
cooler
Grinding of clinkers in ball
mills
Storage in silos
Weighing and packing in
bags
distribution

gypsum

Burning

Burning is carried out in rotary kiln.

Diameter of kiln is 250-300 cm, length is 90-120 m and inclined about 1 in


20 to 30.

It is supported on rollers.

Refractory lining is provided on the inner surface.

Slurry is injected at upper end and it descends to burning zone carbondioxide gets evaporated and forms nodules.

Temperature is about 1500-1700 c.


In burning zone the lime and clay in the slurry get chemically fused to
form hard balls of portland cement known as clinkers (Size 5 to 10mm).

Rotary kiln
from storage tank
slurry dust nodules
rotary arrangement
coal
dust
burning
zone
refactoy
lining
air
Support
cooler
clinkers

Grinding

Grinding is done in ball mills and tube mills.

Gypsum is added about 3 to 4 percent during


grinding.

Gypsum controls initial setting time of cement.

Finely ground cement is stored in silos.

It is weighed and packed in bags.

Each bag contains 50Kg of cement.

The bags are stored in dry places.

Properties of cement
It is an excellent binding material.
Gives strength to masonry.
Possesses a good plasticity.
Offers a good resistance to moisture.
Easily workable.
It hardens quickly after addition of water.
The colour of cement should be uniform.
Cement should be free from lumps.
Cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in
between fingers.

If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it


should sink and should not float on the surface.
Average compressive strength of cement mortar should not be
lass than 11.5 N/mm2 at 3days and 17.5 N/mm2 at 7days.
Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than 2 N/mm 2 at
3days and 2.5 N/mm2 at 7days.
The initial setting time should not be less than 30 mins and final setting time
should not be more than 600 mins.
The loss of ignition should be within 4%
The specific surface of cement should not be less than 2250 cm 2 /gm.
If the cement is sieved on 90 micron sieve for 15 mins, the residue by weight
should be within 10%.

Uses of cement
It is used for constructing engineering structures such as
dams, bridges, storage reservoirs.
Used for making joints for pipes, drains.
Used for preparation of foundations, footpath.
Used for manufacture of precast pipes, fencing posts.
Used for masonry work, plastering, pointing.
Used for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels.
Used for protecting the structures from weather.

Types of cement
Quick setting cement
Low heat cement
High alumina cement
Expanding cement
Rapid hardening cement
Acid resistant cement
Sulphate resisting cement
White cement
Coloured cement

Blast furnace cement


Pozzolana cement
Air entraining cement
Masonry cement
Oil-well cement
Redi-set cement
High strength cement
Hydrophobic cement

Testing of cement
Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:

Field testing

Laboratory testing

Field testing sufficient to subject the cement to field tests


when it is used for minor works.
Open the bag and take a look at the cement. There should
not be any visible lumps. The colour of the cement should
normally be greenish grey.
Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a
cool feeling.
Take a pinch of cement and feel between the fingers. It
should give a smooth and gritty feelings.

Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of


water, the particles should float for some time before they
sink.
Take about 100 grams of cement and a small quantity of
water and make a stiff paste (cake should not disturb
when take into the water)
Laboratory testing - for using cement in major works, the
laboratory test are carried out.
The following are carried out in laboratory:
Fineness test (sieve analysis)
Setting time test(standard consistency)
Strength test(compressive strength)
Soundness test(le chatelier)
Heat of hydration test(vacuum flask method)
Chemical composition test

Strength test:
Compressive strength is most important.
The standard sand is used for finding the strength of cement.

Fineness test
Fineness of cement is important bearing on the rate of
hydration and on rate of gain of strength.
Finer cement offers a greater surface area and hence faster
and greater the development of strength.
Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:
By sieving.
By determination of specific surface by air- permeability.

Setting time test


An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of
cement as initial setting and final setting time.

Initial setting time- is the time elapsed between the


moment that the water is added to the cement to the time
that the paste starts losing its plasticity.

Final setting time the time elapsed between the moment


the water is added to the cement and the time when the
paste has completely lost its plasticity and has sufficient
firmness to resist pressure.
The test is carried out in vicat apparatus.

Concrete
Definition
Concrete may be defined as a building material obtained by mixing
cement, fine, coarse aggregates and water in suitable proportions.
It is plastic mixture after curing it becomes hard mass.
The coarse aggregates are broken stone, broken bricks or gravel, the fine
aggregate is sand or surki and the binding material is lime or cement.
Fresh concrete or plastic is a freshly mixed material which can be
moulded into any shape.
The relative quantities of cement, aggregates and water together control
the properties in the wet state as well as in the hardened state.
Constituents of Concrete
Cement
Fine aggregate and Coarse aggregate
Water

Advantages of Concrete
It is plastic when freshly prepared and can be moulded to any
shape.
Concrete does not lose its strength with age and does not
require maintenance.
The proportion of mix can be suitable designed to give concrete
of required strength.
It is durable and not affected by weather.
It affords quickness and ease of a construction.
It can be given various finishes.
Concrete is water repellent and can be made water proof.
Concrete can be made fire proof or light weight or chemical
resistant by using suitable admixtures.

Properties of Concrete
Concrete has high compressive strength depends on the
proportion of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water used.
It hardens with age and process of hardening continuous for
long time even after it has attained sufficient strength, but the
rate of hardening decreases with age.
It is free from corrosion and atmospheric effects.
It is weak in tension. Steel reinforcement is placed in cement
concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses called
as RCC.
It shrinks in the initial stage and during hardening. This can be
minimized by proper curing.

Workability
The property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and
homogenous with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished

Factors Affecting Workability


Water content
Mix proportions
Size of aggregates
Shape of aggregates
Surface texture of aggregates
Grading of aggregates
Use of admixtures

Water content

Water content in a given volume of concrete will have significant


influences on the workability.
Higher the water content, higher be the fluidity which affects
workability.

Mix proportion
Aggregate/cement

ratio

is

an

important

factor

influences

workability.
Higher the aggregate/cement ratio, leaner is the concrete.

Size of aggregate
Bigger the size of the aggregate, less is the surface area and less is
the amount of water.
It will give better workability.

Shape of aggregate
The shape of aggregate influences workability.
Angular, elongated or flaky aggregate makes the concrete harsh
when compared with rounded aggregates.

Surface texture
The total surface area of rough textured aggregate is more than the
surface area of smooth rounded aggregate of same volume.

Grading of aggregate
It influences maximum workability.
Better the grading, less the void content and higher the workability.

Use of aggregate
Use of air-entraining and pozzolanic material gives better
workability.

Measurement of workability
The following tests are commonly employed to measure workability:
Slump test K Slumper
Compacting factor test - Compacting factor apparatus
Flow test Flow table
Kelly ball test Kelly ball
Vee bee consistometer test- VBR
Segregation : Separation of the constituent materials of concrete
Bleeding : Water from the concrete comes out of the surface of the
concrete
Water Cement ratio : Ratio of weight of water used to that of cement.
It depends upon strength, workability and method of compaction

Process of manufacture of
concrete
The various stages of manufacture of
concrete are:
Batching
Mixing
Transporting
Placing
Compacting
Curing
Finishing

Batching

The measurement of materials for making concrete is


known as batching.
Volume batching Gauge box
Weigh batching weight machine

Mixing
Mixing of materials is essential for the production of
uniform concrete.
There are two methods for mixing concrete:
Hand mixing
Machine mixing.

Transporting concrete
Concrete can be transporting by a variety of methods and
equipments.
Mortar pan
Wheel barrow, Hand cart
Bucket and Rope way
Truck mixer and Dumpers
Belt conveyors
Chute
Skip and Hoist
Pumps and Pipeline

Placing concrete
Placing concrete within earth mould.
e.g.: foundation concrete for a wall or column.
Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber plank
formwork.
e.g.: road slab and airfield slab.
Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters.
e.g.: mass concrete in dam construction or construction of
concrete abutment or pier.
Placing concrete within usual from work.
e.g.: columns, beams and floors.
Placing concrete under water.

Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the
entrapped air from the concrete.
Hand compaction:
Rodding
Ramming
Tamping.
Compaction by vibration
Internal vibrator (needle vibrator)
Formwork vibrator (external vibrator)
Table vibrator
Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator (screed vibrator).
Compaction by pressure and jolting
Compaction by spinning.

Curing of concrete
Curing is the process of maintaining a satisfactorily moisture

content and favorable temperature.


The following are the curing methods:
Water curing
Membrane curing
Application of heat
Miscellaneous

Water curing
Water curing can be done in the following:
Immersion
Ponding
Spraying
Wet covering

Membrane curing
Bituminous compounds
Polyethylene
Waterproof paper
Rubber.
Application of heat
The exposure of concrete to higher temperature can be
done in the following manner:
Steam curing at ordinary pressure
Steam curing at high pressure
Curing by infra-red radiation
Electrical curing.

Miscellaneous methods of curing


Calcium chloride is used as a surface coating or as a
admixture.
Finishing
Finishing operation is the last operation in making concrete.
Surface finish can be grouped as follows:
Formwork finishes centering work
Surface treatment
Applied finishes.
Miscellaneous Finishes : Non - Slip Finish, Coloured finish,
Water resistant floor finish

Cement Silo

Bulk Cement Truck

Mixer Tanker

Batch Plant

Batch Plant

Tests on fresh concrete


Slump test
Kelly ball test.
Tests on hardened concrete
Non-destructive testing-does not cause any destructive of the
element.
Semi-destructive testing-cause negligible damage of the element.
Non-destructive testing:
Rebound hammer test.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test.
Semi-destructive testing:
Windsor probe test

Rebound hammer test


It consists of spring-controlled mass that slides on a plunger
within tubular housing.
When the plunger is pressed the spring controlled mass
rebounds.
Depends on surface hardness of concrete.
Related to compressive strength.
The rebound is read on graduated scale and the value is
designated as rebound number or rebound index.

Uses:
It is used for estimating the compressive strength.
Establishing the uniformity of concrete.
Assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to
another.
Limitations:
Results are affected by the angle of test, surface smoothness, and
mix proportion.
It is only suitable for close-textured concrete.

Rebound hammer
concrete impact spring
compression spring

plunger
housing

surface

hammer
mass

Types of concrete
Normal
density

Air-entraining
Polymer concrete composites

Ferro cement
Light weight

Sulphur impregnate concrete

Recycled

Fibre reinforced concrete(FRC).

Heavy weight

Roller compacted concrete

No slump

Super plasticized

No fine

Coloured

Vacuum

Pumped

Spinned

Ready mixed concrete(RMC)

Hot

FRC
Composite material consisting of mixture of cement mortar
and discontinuous discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibres.
Types:
a)

SFRC- steel fibre reinforced concrete

b)

CFRC- carbon fibre reinforced concrete

c)

GFRC- glass fibre reinforced concrete

d)

HFRC- hybrid fibre reinforced concrete.

) SFRC- steel fibre reinforced concrete


) Made up of rusted steel.
) Used in road pavements, bridge decks.

CFRC- carbon fibre reinforced concrete


Has high tensile strength.
Durability.
HFRC- hybrid fibre reinforced concrete
Made up of polypropylene, nylon fibres,
asbestos.
Durability
High tensile strength.

Quality of concrete
Good workability
No segregation
No bleeding
High strength
Durability
Impermeability
Elasticity
Shrinkage
Least thermal expansion.

Advantages of concrete
Availability of concrete is easy.
Easy handling.
Easy transportation.
More economical.
Monolithic character gives better appearance.
Disadvantages of concrete
Expansion joints are required.
Construction joints are provided to avoid cracks.
Sustain loads develops creep in structure.
Due to low tensile strength, concrete is required to be
reinforced to avoid cracks.
Soluble salts in concrete cause efflorescence of moisture reacts

Concrete chemicals
They are used in cement as an additive, in mortar and
concrete as admixtures.
Such additives and admixtures is called as concrete
chemicals or construction chemicals.
It includes the following materials:
Plasticizers and super plasticizers.
Retarding plasticizers and retarders.
Accelerating plasticizers and accelerators.
Air-entraining agent.
Water proofing material.
Polymer bonding agents.

Floor hardness and dust proofers.


Concrete curing compounds.
Polymer mortar for repair and maintenance.
Adhesive for tiles, marbles and granite.
Mould releasing agents.
Grouting agents.
Decorative and protective paint.
Concrete repair system.
Installation aids.

Queries:
Two marks:
What is cement and list out its chemical composition?
What are the process of cement manufacturing?
What are the methods of testing in cement?
What is meant by workability?
What is concrete and explain mix proportion of concrete?
What are the testing methods involved in fresh concrete and
hardened concrete?
What are the qualities of concrete?
Describe the advantage of concrete?
Describe the disadvantages of concrete?
What Is meant by concrete chemicals?

16 marks:
Describe the manufacturing of cement(dry and wet process)?
What are the different types of cement? explain their
properties and uses?
Describe the field testing and laboratory testing method in
cement?
Explain in detail the process of concrete manufacturing?
Explain the method of non-destructive testing in detail?
What tests are used to determine the workability of fresh
concrete? explain in detail:
What are the different types of concrete? explain their
properties and uses?
Explain the various types of concrete chemicals in detail?

THANK YOU

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