Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The deuteron
Nucleon-Nucleon scattering
Fundamental Forces
The Deuteron
The simplest nucleus in nature is that of the hydrogen isotope, deuterium. Known as
the deuteron, the nucleus consists of one proton and one neutron. Due to its
simplicity, the deuteron is an ideal candidate for tests of our basic understanding of
nuclear physics. Recently, scientists have been studying the intrinsic shape of the
deuteron. Dominated by three components describing the interactions of the quark
components of the neutron and proton, its shape is not spherical. Recent tests have
shown no deviations in the predictions of standard nuclear physics.
www.physicscentral.com/.../2002/deuteron.html
The Deuteron
The deuteron, composed of a proton and a neutron, is a stable particle.
abundance of 1.5 x 10-4 compared to 0.99985 for ordinary hydrogen.
Constituents
Mass
Binding energy
Angular momentum
Magnetic moment
Electric quadrupole moment
RMS separation
1 proton 1 neutron
2.014732 u
2.224589 0.000002 MeV
1
0.85741 0.00002 N
+2.88 x 103 bar
4.2 fm
H + n 2H +
Photodissociation
+ 2H 1H + n
(3)
(2)
As we have discussed previously, the average binding energy per nucleon is about 7 ~ 8 MeV for
typical nuclei. The binding energy of the deuteron, B = 2.224 MeV, is away too small when
compared with typical nuclei. This means that the deuteron is very weakly bound.
Here we want to explore more about this result and study the properties of the deuteron.
figure a
Nuclear model
potential for studying
the deuteron
(4)
Here r represents the separation between
the proton and the neutron, so R is in effect
a measure of the diameter of the deuteron.
The dynamical behavior of a nucleon must be described by the Schrdingers equation:
2 2
(r ) V (r ) (r ) E (r )
2m
If the potential is not orientationally dependent, a central potential, then the wave
function solution can be separated into radial and angular parts:
(r ) R (r )Ylm ( , )
(6)
Substitute R(r) = u(r)/r in to the Schrdingers equation the function u(r) satisfies the
following equation ;
2 d 2u
l (l 1) 2
V (r )
u (r ) Eu (r )
2m dr 2
2mr 2
(7)
u (r ) unl (r )
(8)
with
Rnl (r )
unl (r )
r
(9)
The angular part of the solution Ylm(,) is called the spherical harmonic of order l, m and
satisfies the following equations:
L2Ylm ( , ) l (l 1) 2Ylm ( , ) and
2
2
where L
LZ Ylm ( , ) mYlm ( , )
(10)
and LZ i
(11)
1
1
2
sin
2
2
sin
sin
For the case of a three dimensional square well potential with zero angular momentum (l = 0),
which we use as the model potential for studying the ground state of the deuteron, the
Schrdingers equation can be simplified into:
2 d 2u
d u
Eu (r )
2m dr 2
, for r > R
(12)
I. When r < R
2 d 2u
V0u (r ) Eu (r )
The Schrdingers equation is
2m dr 2
This equation can be rearranged into:
d 2u
2
k
u (r ) 0
1
2
dr
And the solution is
(13)
2m( E V0 )
2
(14)
(15)
with
k1
u (r )
0
r 0
r
lim ( r ) lim
r 0
u (r ) A sin k1r
(16)
2 d 2u
Eu (r )
2m dr 2
(17)
u (r ) Ce k 2 r De k 2 r
The solution is
with
k2
2mE
2
lim u (r ) 0
r
u (r ) Ce k 2 r
(19)
(18)
k1 cot k1 R k 2
(20)
R = 2.1 fm
V0 = 35 MeV
If the nucleon-nucleon force were just a bit weaker the deuteron bound
state would not exist at all. In this situation the whole universe would be
all quite different from the one we are observing.
(21)
There are four ways to couple sn, sp, and l to get a total I of 1.
(a) sn and sp parallel with l = 0
parallel
antiparallel
Since we know that the parity of the deuteron is even and the parity associated
with orbital motion is determined by (-1)l we are able to rule out some options.
Orbital angular momentum l = 0 and l = 2 give the correct parity determined from
experimental observations.
The observed even parity allows us to eliminate the combinations of spins that
include l =1, leaving l = 0 and l = 2 as possibilities.
n p
g sp N
g sn N
sn
sp
(22)
1
N ( g sn g sp )
2
0.879804 N
(23)
In the context of the present discussion we can ascribe the tiny discrepancy to
the small mixture of d state ( l = 2) in the deuteron wave function:
as (l 0) ad (l 2)
(24)
as (l 0) ad (l 2)
2
(25)
(26)
Q 0.00288 0.00002 b
(27)
When the mixed wave function [equation (24)] is used to calculate the quadrupole
moment of the deuteron (Q) the calculation gives two contribution terms. One is
proportional to (ad)2 and another proportional to the cross-term (asad).
Q
where
r2
sd
2
as ad r 2
10
sd
r 2 Rs (r ) Rd (r )r 2 dr
1 2 2
ad r
20
r2
dd
dd
(28)
r 2 Rd (r ) Rd (r )r 2 dr
To calculate Q we must know the deuteron d-state wave function and it is obtainable from
the realistic phenomenological potentials. The d-state admixture is of several percent in
this calculation and is consistent with the 4% value deduced from the magnetic moment.
The total amount of information about nucleon-nucleon interaction that we acquire from
the study of the deuteron is very limited. As far as we know there is only one weakly
bound state of a neutron and a proton.
The configuration of the deuteron is l = 0, parallel spins, and ~ 2 fm separation.
To study the nucleon-nucleon interaction in different configurations we need to perform
nucleon-nucleon scattering experiments.
As in the case of electron scattering the nuclear scattering problem is analogous to the
diffraction problem in optics. There are three features worth mentioning:
1. The incident wave is represented
by a plane wave, while far from
the target (obstacle) the scattered
wave fronts are spherical. The total
energy content of any expanding
spherical wave front cannot vary;
thus its intensity (per unit area)
must decrease like r-2 and its
amplitude must decrease like r-1.
2. Along the surface of any spherical scattered wave front, the diffraction is responsible
for the variation in intensity of the radiation. The intensity thus depends on angular
coordinates and .
3. A radiation detector placed at any point far from the target would record both incident
and scattered waves.
V
E
-V0
1 2
2
2c 2
(200 MeV fm)2
This corresponds to the kinetic energy T mv
20 MeV
2
2 2
2
2
2mR
2mc R
2(1000 MeV)(1 fm)
(r ) V (r ) (r ) E (r )
2m
(29)
The mass appearing in the equation is the reduced mass and is about half of the nucleon mass.
V
-V0
1
mN
(30)
2
By defining the radial part wave function as
u(r)/r, the Schrdinger equation is
m
E
R
2 d 2u
Eu (r )
2m dr 2
(31)
, for r > R
u (r ) A sin k1r
with
k1 2m( E V0 ) / 2
(32)
u (r ) A sin k1r
with
(32)
k1 2m( E V )0 / 2
(33)
u (r ) C sin( k 2 r )
where
(34)
E
R
(35)
k 2 cot(k 2 R ) k1 cot k1 R
(36)
-V0
is called the
phase shift
(attractive potential)
(repulsive potential)
incident
A eikr e ikr
2ik r
r
(37)
The minus sign between the two terms keeps the incident wave function
finite for r 0, and using the coefficient A for both terms sets the
amplitudes of the incoming and outgoing waves to be equal.
We further assume that the scattering does not create or destroy particles, and
thus the amplitudes of the eikr and e-ikr terms should be the same.
All that can result from the scattering is a change in phase of the outgoing wave:
A
(r )
2ik
e i ( kr ) e ikr
r
r
(38)
If we want to find the amplitude of the scattered wave we need to subtract the incident
amplitude from (r )
scattered incident
(39)
In terms of scattered , the current of scattered particles per unit area can thus be
calculated by the following equation:
jscattered
*
2im
r
r
(40)
The scattered current is uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius r. The probability d
that an incident particle is scattered into d is the ratio of the scattered current to the
incident current:
( jscattered )(r 2 d)
d
jincident
(41.a)
d r 2 ( jscattered )
d
jincident
(41.b)
Taking the equation (34) we know that in the region r > R the wave function is of the form
(r )
u (r ) C
sin( kr 0 )
r
r
(42)
r
2i
2i
r
r
(r )
(43)
i
where 2 0 and A kCe 0 when compared with the equation (38).
By subtracting the incident part of the wave function from Eq. (43)
we have the scattered wave.
scattered incident
A 2 i 0
eikr
(e 1)
2ik
r
(44)
Using Eq. (40) the current of scattered particles per unit area is:
2
jscattered
* A
sin 2 0
*
2
2mi
r
r
mkr
jincident
k A
(45)
d sin 2 0
d
k2
(46)
(47)
(48)
k 2 cot(k 2 R ) k1 cot k1 R
(36)
Assume that the incident energy is small, say E 10 keV and take
V0 = 35 MeV from our analysis of the deuteron bound state.
k1 2m(V0 E ) / 2 0.92 fm 1
k2 2mE / 2 0.016 fm -1
sin 2 0
(49)
k1 cot k1R
cos k2 R ( / k2 ) sin k2 R
2
1 2 / k2
(50)
(51)
and so
cos
k
R
sin
k
R
2
2
2
2
k2
k2
(52)
1 barn 10-28 m 2
4
(1 R ) 4.6 barn
2
(53)
~ The End ~
A computer-generated image of Saturn's moon Atlas. Scientists now think it's flying-saucer
shape comes from having snagged particles out of the planet's rings. Credit: CEA/ANIMEA
http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/071206-saturn-moons.html