Chapter One: OF Soil Mechanics

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
OF
SOIL MECHANICS
jka/CC304/Fadzli JKA
DEFINITION
Geotechnical Engineering is that part of engineering

which is concerned with the behaviour of soil and
rock.
Soil Mechanics is the part concerned solely with soils.
From an engineering perspective soils generally refer
to sedimentary materials that have not been
cemented and have not been subjected to high
compressive stresses.
Soil mechanics is concerned with particulate materials
(soils) found in the ground that are not cemented and
not greatly compressed.
DEFINITION
The soil particles can have varying sizes, shapes and

mineralogies, although these properties are usually
interrelated.
For instance the larger sized particles are generally
composed of quartz and feldspars, minerals that have high
strengths and the particles are fairly round.
The smaller sized particles are generally composed of the
clay minerals kaolin, illite and montmorillonite, minerals
that have low strengths and form plate like particles.
One of the most important aspects of particulate materials
is that there are gaps or voids between the particles.
The amount of voids is also influenced by the size, shape
and mineralogy of the particles.
DEFINITION
Because of the wide range of particle sizes, shapes and

mineralogies in a typical soil a detailed classification of each
soil would be very expensive and inappropriate for most
geotechnical engineering purposes.
However, some form of simple classification system giving
information about the engineering properties is required on all
sites. Why is this necessary?
Usually the soil on site has to be used. Soils differ from
other engineering materials in that one has very little, if
any, control over their properties.
The extent and properties of the soil at the site have to be
determined.
Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication
of the engineering properties such as stiffness and
strength for preliminary design.
DEFINITION
As for other branches of engineering the major issues are stability

and serviceability.
When a structure is built it will apply a load to the underlying soil; if
the load is too great the strength of the soil will be exceeded and
failure may ensue.
It is important to realise that not only buildings are of concern, the
failure of an earth dam can have catastrophic consequences, as
can failures of natural and man made slopes and excavations.
Buildings or earth structures may be rendered unserviceable by
excessive deformation of the ground, although it is usually
differential settlement, where one side of a building settles more
than the other, that is most damaging.
Criteria for allowable settlement vary from case to case; for
example the settlement allowed in a factory that contains sensitive
equipment is likely to be far more stringent than that for a
warehouse.
Proses pembentukan Tanah
Tanah terbentuk dari hasil Luluhawa Batuan

sama ada secara Fizikal atau Kimia
Luluhawa fizikal menyebabkan penyepaian
batuan kepada saiz zarah yang lebih kecil
Luluhawa kimia menyebabkan penguraian
bahan-bahan mineral di dalam batuan
secara pengoksidaan ,penurunan
,pengkarbonan dan proses kimia yang lain
Jenis tanah
Tanah Organik. (Organic Top Soil)

Tanah lapisan atas yang terdapat pada
permukaan bumi. Ia mengandungi bahanbahan organik dan ketebalan tanah
biasanya tidak melebihi 500mm. Tanah ini
perlu disingkirkan terlebih dahulu sebelum
sebarang projek pembinaan di mulakan
Jenis tanah
Tanah baki (Residual Soil)

Terbentuk melalui proses luluhawa batuan
asal mengalami tindakan mekanikal dan
kimia dan tanah tersebut kurang upaya
untuk bergerak
Jenis-Jenis Tanah
Tanah Terangkut ( Transported Soil)

Tanah yang diangkut oleh agen hakisan
sama ada air,angin ,glasier atau graviti
Tanah yang diangkut oleh air akan
menghasilkan kerikil, pasir, kelodak dan
tanah liat
Tanah yang dipindahkan oleh graviti
merupakan tanah runtuh batu runtuh dan
aliran lumpur
Jenis-Jenis Tanah
Tanah Terangkut ( Transported Soil)

Tanah loes pula adalah tanah yang
dipindahkan oleh angin
10
TYPES OF ROCKS
The earth is made of rocks, which are aggregates of

minerals.
Rocks can be categorized into 3 groups:
IGNEOUS ROCKS, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, and
METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
Igneous rocks are crystallized from molten rock
materials.
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the accumulation
material produced by the breakdown of the other rocks
at the earth's surface.
Metamorphic rocks are formed through the alteration
of igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure
11
KITARAN BATUAN
12
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are rocks that have crystallized from molten

rock material called magma.
The magma may reaches the surface of the earth, and
flow over it as lava.
The rocks formed in this process is called extrusive
ingeous rocks or volcanic rocks.
Examples of volcanic rocks are basalt and rhyolite.
Intrusive igneous rocks such as granite and gabbro are
crystallized in the earth's crust.
The identification and naming of igneous rocks is based on
the relative amounts of constituent minerals, grain size,
texture and colour index.
13
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Common textures of
igneous rocks
Differences in the degree

of crystallinity, and in the
size of the crystals
determine the texture of
an igneous rock.
Both of these factors are
controlled primarily by
rate of cooling, though
the chemical
composition of the
magma and its content
of volatile materials play
important roles.
Rhyolite
14
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Granite
Gabbro
Basalt
15
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the accumulation of

material derived from the breakdown preexisting rocks,
together with material of organic origin, on the earth's
surface.
The break down of rocks through weathering, erosion and
transportation of rocks by physical agents such as river,
wind and rain is helped by chemical decay.
The material produced known as sediment is transported
mainly by river, is deposited at river mouth, in lakes and in
the sea.
Sedimentary rocks produced by this mechanical process in
called clastic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are also produced by accumulation of
organic debris and by precipitation from solution of
dissolved salts.
16
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Common textures of sedimentary rocks
Differences in the nature of the constituent particles, and in

how they are bound together determine the texture of a
sedimentary rock.
Clastic (Greek, "broken"). Composed of broken and worn
fragments of pre-existing minerals, rock particles, or shells
that have been cemented together.
Organic. Composed of accumulations of organic debris
(shells, plant remains, bones, etc.) in which the individual
organic particles are so well preserved (not notably broken
and worn) that organic features dominate the texture of the
rock.
Crystalline. Composed of crystals precipitated from solution
and therefore tightly interlocked by mutual interpenetration
during growth.
17
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Orthoconglomerate
Sandstone
Limestone
Limestone
Mudstone
18
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are formed by alteration

(metamorphism) of igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphism occur in solid state when a rock is

subjected to heat and pressure.
The type of metamorphic rock produced depend on

the type original rock material, and the temperature
and pressure conditions.
19
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Common textures of metamorphic rock
Differences in the orientation, or alignment, of the

crystals and in the size of the crystals determine the
texture of a metamorphic rock.
There are two general textural groups: foliated textures

(Latin, "leafy"), in which platy or leaflike minerals such
as mica or chlorite are nearly all aligned parallel to one
another so that the rock splits readily along the welloriented, nearly parallel cleavages of its constituent
mineral particles, and nonfoliated, composed either of
equidimensional minerals or of randomly oriented platy
minerals, so that the rock breaks into angular particles.
20
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Phyllite
21
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Schist
22
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Quartzite
23
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Gneiss
24
SOIL FORMATION
One of the most important scientific discoveries was how soil forms
spontaneously from rock.
Under the influence of physical factors like deformation by heat and

cold, assault by wind, rain, hail and ice, and the enormous levering
forces of water expanding into ice, solid rock is shattered into smaller
pieces (see picture).
But however small these fragments, they still have the same properties
as the parent rock.
Being formed under high pressure and temperatures, the crystals of

the minerals in the rock are somewhat unstable at surface pressure
and temperature.
Particularly when attacked by acids that etch away the soluble

components in the minerals, the crystals fall apart, albeit very slowly.
It is called spontaneous weathering, but it is accelerated considerably

under the influence of vegetation and its acids (chemical weathering).
25
SOIL FORMATION
Factors in soil formation:
parent material
time
climate
atmospheric composition
topography
organisms
26
SOIL FORMATION
Organic Topsoil
Soil are formed from the physical and chemical
weathering of rocks.
Physical weathering involves reduction of size without
any change in the original composition of the parent rock.
The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Chemical weathering causes both reductions in size and
chemical alteration of the original parent rock.
The main agents responsible for chemical weathering
are hydration, carbonation and oxidation.
Often, chemical and physical weathering take place in
concert.
27
SOIL FORMATION
Residual
-
Soil that remain at the site of weathering are

called residual rocks.
These soils retain many of the elements that

comprise the parent rock.
28
SOIL FORMATION
Transported
- Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils
that
were transported by rivers and
streams.
-
The composition of these soil depends on the

environment under which they were
transported and is often different from the
parent rock.
-
The profile of alluvial soils usually consists of

layers of different soils.
29
SITE INVESTIGATION TEST
The investigation of a specific site by suitable experts

usually commences with simply walking over it to observe
features such as the form of the landscape areas of dry and
waterlogged ground, and evidence of past land uses and
activities.
The expert will look for subtle clues or more obvious

evidence of ground movements, vegetation distressed by
possible chemicals in the ground, and factors such as
flooding.
Secondly, wherever possible, existing documentary evidence

(e.g. maps, earlier site investigation reports,historical
documents giving evidence of land use) are collected and
relevant information is extracted and compiled.
All of this evidence helps the site investigation team to

design an efficient and effective investigation including
where to place boreholes, where to use geophysical
investigation, what sampling and physical and chemical
testing to undertake.
30
The results form the basis for advice on the best

ways to proceed with the proposed development
in terms of treatment of existing ground
problems, and precise location and design of, for
instance, foundations.
There is often a tendency for developers to try to

economise on the costs of site investigations.
That is almost invariably a mistake since the
usual result is "unexpected problems" that cause
additional costs and delays to development.
Sampling (remove soil from the hole, sample should

be well marked with date, location, and depth)
Testing (a test pit can be used to obtain an

undisturbed sample.)
31
Boreholes
Trial pits
Cone penetration test
Standard penetration test
Plate bearing test
Sampling and testing - taking of rock and soil samples from the surface
or from boreholesis an important part of ground investigation.
These can be studied under the microscope,and physically or chemically

tested to establish their age, origin, and engineering properties.
Samples of surface and underground water can be chemically analysed.
In addition, measurements undertaken in boreholes can help to define

the amounts and directions and rates of movement of underground
water, and the pressure under which it is confined.
32
SOIL SAMPLE
Disturbed Sample has been "disturbed" and no longer

has the same form (i.e. density).
The grain size, liquid limit, plastic limits, specific gravity,
and some compaction tests can be performed on this
sample.
Undisturbed Sample (as close to undisturbed as

possible) keeps the same form or condition it had when in
the ground.
One can perform all the tests as a disturbed sample plus
strength, compressibility, and permeability.
33
SOIL SAMPLE
Two types of soil samples can be obtained during

subsurface exploration :
Disturbed.
Grain-size analysis.
Determination of liquid limits and plastic limits.
Specific gravity of soil solids.
Organic content determination.
Classification of soil.
Undisturbed.
Consolidation.
Hydraulic conductivity, or shear strength tests.
34
SOIL SAMPLE
EXTRACTION
Four types of procedure for sampling

soil :- Hand Auger.
- Split-Spoon Sampling.
- Thin Wall Tube.
- Piston Sampler.
35
HAND AUGER
36
37
SPLIT-SPOON SAMPLING
Can be used in the field to obtain soil

samples that are generally disturbed but still
representative.
When a borehole is extended to a
predetermined depth, the drill tools are
removed and the sampler is lowered to the
bottom of the borehole.
The sampler is driven into the soil by
hammer blows to the top of the drill rod.
The number of blows required for spoon
penetration is recorded.
38
SPLIT-SPOON SAMPLING
Split spoons are advanced

through the subsurface to
collect overburden
samples.
Rigs are equipped with
automatic hammers for
maximum efficiency.
The driller will maintain a
log to record the sample
and corresponding blow
counts necessary to
complete the process.
39
SPLIT-SPOON
SAMPLING
Split-spoon
sampling using 24"
spoon and 140
pound blow
hammer
40
THIN WALL TUBE
Use:
Thin-walled core samplers are most commonly used for
collection of undisturbed core samples in cohesive soils, silt,
and sand above the water table.
Description:
Sample collection procedures are similar to split-spoon
sampling except that the tube is pushed into the soil, using
the weight of the drill rig, rather than driven. The following
are common thin-wall open tube samplers.
Shelby Tube:Undisturbed samples in cohesive soils, silt,
and sand above the water table.Continuous Tube:Same as
Shelby tubes, except that the longer barrel is designed to
operate inside the column of a hollow-stem auger
41
PISTON SAMPLER
When undisturbed soil samplers are very soft of larger than

76.2mm in diameter, they tend to fall out of the sampler.
Piston sampler are useful under such conditions.
Initially, the piston closes the end of the thin wall tube.
The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the borehole, and the
thin wall tube is pushed into the soil hydraulically, past the
piston.
Then the pressure is released through a hole in the piston rod.
Presence of the piston prevents distortion in the sample by
not letting the soil squeeze into the sampling tube very fast
and by not admitting excess soil.
Samples are less disturbed than those obtained by Shelby
tubes.
42
PISTON
SAMPLER
Hydraulic Piston Sampler

43
44
A. Sampler driven to proper depth.

B. Open hole from previous sample.
C. Open-tube sampler driven back
down
previous hole.
D.jka/CC304/Fadzli
Sampler
driven to proper depth
JKA
45

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CHAPTER ONE

Geotechnical Engineering is that part of engineering

The soil particles can have varying sizes, shapes and

Because of the wide range of particle sizes, shapes and

As for other branches of engineering the major issues are stability

Proses pembentukan Tanah

Tanah terbentuk dari hasil Luluhawa Batuan

Tanah Organik. (Organic Top Soil)

Tanah baki (Residual Soil)

Tanah Terangkut ( Transported Soil)

Tanah Terangkut ( Transported Soil)

The earth is made of rocks, which are aggregates of

Igneous rocks are rocks that have crystallized from molten

Differences in the degree

Sedimentary rocks are produced by the accumulation of

Common textures of sedimentary rocks

Differences in the nature of the constituent particles, and in

Metamorphic rocks are formed by alteration

Metamorphism occur in solid state when a rock is

The type of metamorphic rock produced depend on

Common textures of metamorphic rock

Differences in the orientation, or alignment, of the

There are two general textural groups: foliated textures

Under the influence of physical factors like deformation by heat and

Being formed under high pressure and temperatures, the crystals of

Particularly when attacked by acids that etch away the soluble

It is called spontaneous weathering, but it is accelerated considerably

Factors in soil formation:

Soil that remain at the site of weathering are

These soils retain many of the elements that

The composition of these soil depends on the

The profile of alluvial soils usually consists of

SITE INVESTIGATION TEST

The investigation of a specific site by suitable experts

The expert will look for subtle clues or more obvious

Secondly, wherever possible, existing documentary evidence

All of this evidence helps the site investigation team to

SITE INVESTIGATION TEST

The results form the basis for advice on the best

There is often a tendency for developers to try to

Sampling (remove soil from the hole, sample should

Testing (a test pit can be used to obtain an

SITE INVESTIGATION TEST

These can be studied under the microscope,and physically or chemically

Samples of surface and underground water can be chemically analysed.

In addition, measurements undertaken in boreholes can help to define

Disturbed Sample has been "disturbed" and no longer

Undisturbed Sample (as close to undisturbed as

Two types of soil samples can be obtained during

Four types of procedure for sampling

Can be used in the field to obtain soil

Split spoons are advanced

THIN WALL TUBE

When undisturbed soil samplers are very soft of larger than

Hydraulic Piston Sampler

A. Sampler driven to proper depth.

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