Lectures in

Manufacturing Processes &

Machine Tools (IE308/323)
Prepared By:

Prof. Eng. Ezzeddin Anawa

Professor,
Department of Industrial Engineering & Manufacturing Systems
Faculty of Engineering - University of Garyounis

09/08/16

OUT LINE OF COURSE

I.

II.

METAL MACHINING

METAL REMOVING PROCESSES

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
TURNING
MILLING
DRILLING
ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF CUTTING ,
TOOL GEOMETRY
NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING

METAL FORMING
BASIC CONCEPTS
ROLLING
EXRUSION
DRAWING

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Machining
Is a manufacturing process in which a sharp

cutting tool is used to cut away material to

leave the desired part shape.
The predominant cutting action in machining
involves shear deformation of the work
material to form a chip.
As the chip is removed, a new surface is
exposed.

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Classification of Material Removal Processes

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Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

Figure 21.2 (a) A crosssectional view of the machining process, (b) tool
with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
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WHY MACHINING IS IMPORTANT???

Machining is important for the

following reasons:
Variety of work materials,
Variety of part shapes and
geometric features,
Dimensional accuracy,
Good surface finish,
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Variety of work materials

Machining can be applied to a wide variety

of work materials. All solid metals can be

machined.
Plastics and plastic composites can also be
cut by machining.
Although ceramics have high hardness and
brittlenes most of them can be cut by
abrasive machining processes.
See text book for the rest

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What are the Disadvantages

associated with machining?
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted

material, at least in the unit operation

Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes

more time to shape a given part than

alternative shaping processes, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or forming

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Machining
Operations
Most important machining
operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling

Other machining operations:

Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
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Machining Operations

(a) Turning

(b) Drilling

d) Face Milling
(c) Peripheral Milling
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Turning

Single point cutting tool removes material from

rotating workpart to form a cylindrical shape

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Drilling

Used to create a round hole, usually by

means of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two

cutting edges
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Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Figure 21.3 (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

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What is cutting tool?

It is the tool which has one or more sharp

cutting edges. (what is the cutting edge)

The cutting edge serves to separate a chip
from the parent work material.
Connected to the cutting edges are 2 surfaces
of the tool, rake and flank (look page 479)

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Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
Turning uses single point tools

2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

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More than one cutting edge

Motion relative to work achieved by
rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
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Cutting tool classification

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Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process:

Cutting speed v primary motion

Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below
original work surface

For certain operations, material removal rate

can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
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Cutting Conditions for Turning

Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

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Definition of Rake face, rake

angle, Flank and relief angle
Rake face directs the flow

of the newly formed chip.

Rake angle is the angle
measured relative to a
plane perpendicular to
the work surface. It can
be positive or negative,
how?

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Flank of the tool provides a

clearance between the tool and the

new generated work surface. Thus
protect the surface from abrasion.

Relief angle is the angle between

flank of tool and surface of

workpart.

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Parts and shapes produced by machining

processes

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Examples of Cutting Processes

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Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a threedimensional

process.
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Orthogonal Cutting

Three Dimensional
Process
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Two Dimensional process in

side view
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Theory of Chip Formation in orthogonal Cutting

Relation between Shear Angle(), Rake Angle() and Chip Ratio (C)

to= ls sin
tc= ls cos ( )
r = to / tc
r = ls sin / ls cos ( )

tan
to :

r cos
1 r sin

Chip thickness prior

deformation

tc :

Chip thickness after

deformation

(Chip Ratio) C < 1

i.e.
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tc> to
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Theory of Chip Formation

in Metal Cutting
Chip formation as
parallel plates
sliding relative to
each others

One plate isolates to be studied

tan cot
: Shear strain
: Shear Angle
: Rake Angle
Shear Strain triangle

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Derivation of Shear Strain of

Chip
= /b
From Triangle ABC

= AC/BD
= (AD + DC)/BD
= AD/BD + DC/BD
= Cot + tan ( )

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Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:

= tan( - ) + cot
where = shear strain, = shear plane
angle, and = rake angle of cutting tool

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Chip Formation

More realistic view of chip formation,

showing shear zone rather than shear
plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from toolchip friction. 09/08/16
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Four basic types of Chip

in machining

Discontinuous

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Continuous

Continuous
with Built Up
Edge

Serrated

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BUILT-UP EDGE
The built up edge is

the result of small

particles
from
the
workpiece being built
up and welded to the
tool face under the
heavy pressure and
the heat generated at
the tip of the tool
face.
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09/08/16

BUILT-UP EDGE
Phenomenon is caused by:
1. High friction.
2. Cutting pressure.
3. Metallurgical affinity between
the tool and work materials.

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How can overcome this

phenomenon?
1. Increasing the cutting speed.
2. Reducing the chip thickness.
3. Increasing the rake angle.
4. Using the cutting lubricant.

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Forces in Metal Cutting

Forces on the
chip

Forces acting
on the tool

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FORCE RELATIOSHIPS & MERCHANT

EQUAION
The force on the chip by tool

separated into 2 components.

Friction force, F resisting the flow
of chip along rake face.
Normal force to friction, N
By F and N we can define the
coefficient of friction between tool
and chip: = F/N
R is the resultant of F, N and
oriented at friction angle
=tan

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FORCE RELATIOSHIPS. continued

There are 2 force components on chip by

workpiece

Shear force,

FS: causes shear deformation

to occur in the shear plane.

Normal force to shear,

force.

Shear force,

Fn, normal to shear

S=Fs/As , As: Area of shear

plane
As=tow/sin, when to= ls sin
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Vector addition of FS and Fn gives the resultant

force R/
R and R/ must be equal, opposite and collinear for
balance.
F, N, FS and Fn
can not be measured directly
(why???page486)
Dynamometer is the device to measure the
cutting forces. (What is dynamometer?...Report.)
Cutting force, Fc and thrust force Ft are 2
additional components .
R// is the resultant
By measuring

Fc and Ft the 4 unknown forces

components can be calculated.

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Force diagram

(Relationship between F, N, Fs , Fn , Fc , and Ft)

F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
By Knowing the cutting and thrust forces,
it can be found shear force, friction force
and normal force to friction. (example
page 487)
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Merchant Equation
Merchant considered that

the predominate angle in

cutting is

Page 488

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Effect of Shear Plane Angle

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Higher angle
() resulting
lower shear
area

Smaller angle
()
resulting
Larger shear

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Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal

Cutting

Feed f = Initial chip

thickness to
Depth d = Width w
Cutting speed v
Cutting force Fc
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Feed force Ft = Thrust

09/08/16

Power and Energy in Machining

A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Power = Cutting Force x Cutting speed

Pc= Fc v

Pc: Cutting Power, N.m/s or W.

Fc: Cutting Force, N.
V : Cutting speed, m/s
The gross power to operate machine tool is

greater than the power delivered to the cutting

process because of mechanical losses in the
motor and drive train in the machine. The
losses can be accounted for by the mechanical
efficiency of the machine tool.

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09/08/16

P g = P c / E

or
HPg = HPc / E
Pg : gross power of the motor,
E : mechanical efficiency
The mechanical efficiency is around 90%

Unit power, Pu:

Pu = Pc/ MRR
MRR= vtow
Unit power is called specific energy, U
U= Pu = Pc/ MRR = Fc v/vtow = Fc/tow
Example 491

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09/08/16

Distribution of Energy among Chip, Tool, and

Workpiece as a function of Speed

Approximately 98% of total consumed Energy is converted to Heat

2% Retaining as elastic energy in the chip

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Cutting Temperatures are Important

High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due
to thermal expansion of work material

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Measurement of cutting
Temperature

Pc
Fcv
Fc
U Pu

MRR vt ow t ow

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