The Universe and Solar System

The term universe includes all celestial bodies as well as the intervening
space between them
It consists of innumerable galaxies separated from each other by immense
distances
A normal galaxy is a large flattened system consisting of millions of stars
and gas clouds
The galaxies rotate about their centers and are also moving away from
each other at phenomenal speeds
An average galaxy had a diameter of about 100,000 light years
1 light year = 6 million miles

The sun is an average sized star and belongs to the milky way galaxy.
It is situated about 30,000 light years from the center of the galaxy
The sun revolves about the center of the galaxy with the rest of the galaxy
It completes one revolution in about 200 million years
Therefore the sun and all the stars are not stationary but mobile
Their movement is not apparent to us here on earth because we move
along with them

The Universe and Solar

System

The Solar System consists of the:

Sun
Planets
Planetary satellites
Asteroids
Comets and meteors;

The sun
is the most important member of the system
has a diameter of about 865,000 miles
the only body in the solar system which radiates light
rotates on its own axis completing one rotation in about 25 days

Planets
not self luminous and are only visible because they reflect the suns light
In order of their distance from the sun, the planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars termed together as the inner group and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and
Pluto termed together as the outer planets
Mercury and Venus are known as Inferior Planets while the next 6 planets are known
as Superior Planets
All planets revolve around the sun in a counterclockwise direction and also rotate on
their own axis

The Universe and Solar

System
Comets
Made up of particles of Meteoric matter
Have a small mass as a result
In general orbit the Sun in very long elliptical orbits
Only visible when they are close enough to the Sun as a result reflecting the
Suns light
It is thought that that radiation from the Sun causes the matter of the comet
to stream away from its nucleus
Orbital periods vary from 3 years to 1000 years
The most spectacular comet is the Halleys comet with an orbital period of
about 76 years

Meteors
Commonly known as shooting stars
Are frequently small bits of debris frequently originating from comets
When they pass through the Earths atmosphere they heat up and glow due to
friction
Most meteors burn out in the atmosphere although larger ones occasionally
reach the ground
The once that reach the ground are called meteorites

Name

Mean
Diameter(mi
Distance from
les)
Sun(miles)

Period of
rotation

Period of
revolution
around the
sun

Sun

865400

25.14 days

Mercury

36x106

3000

88 days

88 days

Venus

67.3x106

7848

Not known

224.7 days

Earth

93x106

7927

23hrs 56min

365.25 days

Mars

141.7x106

4268

23hrs 37min

687 days

Jupiter

483.9x106

89329

09hrs 50 min

11.86 days

Saturn

887.9x106

75021

10hrs 02min

29.46 days

Uranus

1783.9x106

33219

10.8hrs

84 yrs.

The Universe and Solar System

All the stars we see from the earth belong to the milky way galaxy
For convenience we group them into different constellations
Apart from their proper names starts may also be designated by the
constellation to which they belong prefixed by a Greek letter
The Greek letter signifies the order of their apparent brightness in that
constellation
Next to the Sun the closest star to the earth is Rigel Kent or -Centauri
The absolute magnitude of a star is a measure of the actual amount
light exhibited by it
The apparent magnitude of a star is a measure of the brightness of the
star as observed from the earth
The magnitude number of a star decreases as its brightness increases
A 2nd magnitude star is as much brighter than a 3 rd magnitude star is
brighter than a 4th magnitude star and so on.
2.51 is the difference in magnitude numbers of the two stars
For example a star of magnitude 1 is 2.51 times brighter than a start of
magnitude 2

The Universe and Solar System

We can calculate as to how many times one
celestial body appears brighter than the other
by using the following relation:
Relative brightness = (2.51) x
Where x = Magnitude number of less bright body
Magnitude number of more bright body
Example: How much brighter is Star A of Magnitude 4
from Star B of Magnitude 6
Solution: Difference in Magnitude= Mag. Star B(6)
Mag.
Star A(4)=2
Therefore, Relative brightness = (2.51) 2 = 6.3

The Universe and Solar

System

Keplers First Law:

States that all planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with
the Sun being on one of the Foci of the ellipse
An ellipse is a focus of a point such that the sum of the distances from
the point to the two foci is always constant
The orbits of the planets are nearly circular

Keplers Second law:

States that the radius vector of a planet sweeps out equal areas in
equal periods
For equal areas to be swept in equal periods, planet moves faster in its
orbit when it is closer to the Sun than when it is away
A planet is said to be Aphelion when in its orbit, its farthest from the
Sun and Perihelion when it is nearest to the Sun
Keplers Third Law:
Gives the relationship between the distance of a planet from the Sun
and the time it takes to complete one revolution around the Sun
According to this law planets which are closer to the Sun have
greater angular orbital velocity than planets which are farther away

The Universe and Solar

System
Day and night and Seasons of the
Earth
The Earth revolves around the Sun in an
elliptical orbit
It also rotates on its own axis from West
to East
Since the Earth is nearly spherical, 50%
of the Earths surface is illuminated by
the Sun at any given time

The Celestial Sphere and equinoctial

system of coordinates
To an observer on earth the heavens appear to be
an inverted hemisphere with earth at its center
The other half of the horizon which is below the
horizon is not visible to him/her
Thus the earth appears to be at the center of the
universe
For the purpose of navigation however we assume
the earth to be at the center of a sphere of infinite
radius.
All celestial bodies are assumed to be situated on
the inside surface of the sphere

The Celestial Sphere and equinoctial

system of coordinates-Definitions
The Celestial Sphere
A sphere of infinite radius with the earth at its center

Celestial poles
Two points on the celestial poles directly above the Earths north and south
poles through which the Earths axis passes Circle

Celestial Equator(Equinoctial)
Is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same place as the celestial
equator
It is a projection of the equator
Every point on the equinoctial is 90 from the celestial poles

Parallels of declination
Small circles on the celestial sphere, planes of which are parallel to the
equinoctial
Correspond to the meridians of the earth

Celestial meridians
Semi great circles on the celestial sphere the planes of which pass through
the celestial poles
Correspond to the meridians on the earth

The Celestial Sphere and equinoctial

system of coordinates-Definitions
Ecliptic
Great Circle on the celestial sphere
In the same plane as the earths orbit around the sun
Thus the suns apparent orbit around the Earth is claimed as the ecliptic
It is so called because the sun, moon and earth have to be on the same plane for an eclipse to
occur
The plane of the Earths orbit and therefore that of the Ecliptic is inclined at about 23.5 o to the
equinoctial
As the sun appears to move along the ecliptic, the maximum declination of the sun, north and
south is equal to that angle.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic

Is the angle between the equinoctial and that of the ecliptic
Its value is approximately 23.5 o

First Point of Aries and First Point of Libra

Two points on the celestial sphere, where the ecliptic intersects the equinoctial are called the
equinoctial points
On 21st march, at Vernal equinox, the sun appears to cross the equinoctial from south to north
This point is known as the first point of Aries
On 23rd September, at Autumnal equinox, the sun appears to cross the equinoctial from north to
south.
This point is known as the first point of Libra

The celestial equator system of

coordinates
Zenith
The point on the celestial sphere vertically overhead of
an observer

Nadir
the point on the opposite side of the sphere vertically
below the observer

Declination
The bodys angular distance from the celestial equator
The location of a body on its hour circle is defined by
its declination
A circle parallel to the celestial equator is called a
parallel of declination since it connects all points of
equal declination

The celestial equator system of

coordinates
Hour circle
A great circle through the celestial poles and a point or body
on the celestial sphere.
Similar to a celestial meridian, but moves with the celestial
sphere as it rotates about the Earth
Two basic methods of locating the hour circle are in use.
1. First, the angular distance west of a reference hour circle through a
point on the celestial sphere, called the vernal equinox or first point
of Aries, is called sidereal hour angle (SHA)
This angle, measured eastward from the vernal equinox, is called
right ascension and is usually expressed in time units
2. Indicate its angular distance west of a celestial meridian
If the Greenwich celestial meridian is used as the reference, the
angular distance is called Greenwich hour angle (GHA), and if
the meridian of the observer, it is called local hour angle (LHA)

The celestial equator system of

coordinates
Terrestrial longitudes and latitudes expanded until
they reach the celestial sphere forms the basis of the
celestial equator system of coordinates
On the celestial sphere latitude becomes declination,
while longitude becomes sidereal hour angle,
measured from the vernal equinox(First point of Aries)
Declination is angular distance north or south of the
celestial equator
It is measured along an hour circle, from 0 at the
celestial equator through 90 at the celestial poles
It is labeled N or S to indicate the direction of
measurement

The celestial equator system of

coordinates
Local hour angle (LHA) is angular distance
west of the local celestial meridian, or the arc
of the celestial equator between the upper
branch of the local celestial meridian and the
hour circle through a point on the celestial
sphere, measured westward from the local
celestial meridian, through 360
If the Greenwich (0) meridian is used as the
reference, instead of the local meridian, the
expression Greenwich hour angle (GHA) is
applied

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
The second set of celestial coordinates with
which the navigator is directly concerned is
based upon the horizon as the primary great
circle
The line where Earth and sky appear to meet is
called the visible or apparent horizon
At sea the visible horizon appears very regular
and is often very sharp.
its position relative to the celestial sphere
depends primarily upon
the refractive index of the air
the height of the observers eye above the surface.

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
The figure on the next slide right shows a cross section of
the earth
A straight line through and the center of the earth O is the
vertical of the observer and contains his zenith and nadir.
A plane perpendicular to the true vertical is a horizontal
plane and its intersection with the celestial sphere is the
horizon
It is the celestial horizon if its plane passes through the
center of the earth
Geodial horizon if it tangent to the earth
Sensible horizon if it passes through eye of the observer at
A.
Most measurements are referred only to the celestial
horizon which is sometimes called the rational horizon

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
In the horizon system the vertical
circle that passes through the zenith
as well as the celestial poles at the
same time is called the principal
great circle.
The vertical circle through the east
and west points of the horizon and
hence perpendicular to the principal
vertical circle is called the prime
vertical circle or prime vertical

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
The horizon system of coordinates is based on:
1. The celestial horizon as the primary great circle
2. A series of secondary great circles through the zenith and
nadir of the observer and hence perpendicular to his horizon

The celestial horizon is similar to the equator

The vertical circles are similar to the meridians
The main difference is the coordinates in the horizon
system depend on the position of the observer(move
along with the observer since the horizon and the zenith
change along with a change in then observer's position)
The horizon and celestial equator systems coincide when
then observer is at the geographical pole and are
mutually perpendicular when the observer is at the
equator

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
Altitude is angular distance above the horizon.
Measured along a vertical circle, from 0 at the horizon through 90 at
the zenith
Altitude measured from the visible horizon may exceed 90 because
of the dip of the horizon
Angular distance below the horizon, called negative altitude, is
provided for by including certain negative altitudes in some tables for
use in celestial navigation
All points having the same altitude lie along a parallel of altitude.
Zenith distance (z) is angular distance from the zenith, or the arc of a
vertical circle between the zenith and a point on the celestial sphere.
It is measured along a vertical circle from 0through 180
It is usually considered the complement of altitude
For a body above the celestial horizon it is equal to 90 h and for a
body below the celestial horizon it is equal to 90 ( h) or 90 + h.

Daily Motion and Horizontal System

of Coordinates
The horizontal direction of a point on the celestial
sphere, or the bearing of the geographical position, is
called azimuth or azimuth angle depending upon the
method of measurement.
In both methods it is an arc of the horizon (or parallel
of altitude), or an angle at the zenith
It is azimuth (Zn) if measured clockwise through
360, starting at the north point on the horizon,
It is azimuth angle (Z) if measured either clockwise
or counterclockwise through 180, starting at the
north point of the horizon in north latitude and the
south point of the horizon in south latitude.

Celestial Equator vs. Horizon system

of coordinates
No.

Earth

Celestial Equator

Horizon

1.

Equator

Celestial Equator

Horizon

2.

Poles

Celestial Poles

Horizon

3.

Meridians

Hour circles; Celestial

Meridians

Zenith; Nadir

4.

Prime Meridian

Hour circle of Aries

Vertical Circles

5.

Parallels of latitude

Parallels of declination

Parallels of altitude

6.

Latitude

Declination

Altitude

7.

Colatitude

Polar distance

Zenith distance
Azimuth; Azimuth

The Navigational Triangle

A triangle formed by arcs of great circles of a sphere is called a
spherical triangle
A spherical triangle on the celestial sphere is called a celestial
triangle
The spherical triangle of particular significance to navigators is
called the navigational triangle and is formed by arcs of:
celestial meridian,
an hour circle, and;
a vertical circle

Its vertices are the:

Elevated pole
The zenith
A point on the celestial sphere(a celestial body)

On earth this triangle is formed by arcs of two meridians passing

through the assumed (DR) position of the observer on earth, the GP
of the celestial body and the great circle connecting the two points

Sextant and Altitude

Corrections
Purpose of a sextant
The sextant is a precision instrument used at sea
Its primary purpose is measuring altitudes of
celestial bodies and horizontal angles between
terrestrial objects as well as their vertical angles
Measures the angle between two points by bringing
the direct image from one point and a doublereflected image from the other into coincidence
It is turned on its side and used for measuring the
angular distance between two terrestrial objects.
A marine sextant can measure angles up to
approximately 120.

Sextant-Taking Sun sights

Taking Sun sights
Hold the sextant vertically and direct the sight line at the horizon
directly below the Sun
After moving suitable shade glasses into the line of sight, move the
index arm outward along the arc until the reflected image appears in
the horizon glass near the direct view of the horizon
Rock the sextant slightly to the right and left to ensure it is
perpendicular
As you rock the sextant, the image of the Sun appears to move in an
arc, and you may have to turn slightly to prevent the image from
moving off the horizon glass
The sextant is vertical when the Sun appears at the bottom of the arc
The Suns reflected image appears at the center of the horizon glass;
one half appears on the silvered part, and the other half appears on
the clear part
Move the with the drum or vernier slowly until the Sun appears to be
resting exactly on the horizon, tangent to the lower limb

Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant error
1. Perpendicularity Error: Adjust first for
perpendicularity of the index mirror to the frame
of the sextant. To test for perpendicularity:
place the index arm at about 35 on the arc and hold the sextant
on its side with the index mirror up and toward the eye
Observe the direct and reflected views of the sextant arc,
If the two views are not joined in a straight line, the index mirror
is not perpendicular.
If the reflected image is above the direct view, the mirror is
inclined forward
If the reflected image is below the direct view, the mirror is
inclined backward.
Make the adjustment using two screws behind the index mirror.

Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant error
2. Side Error: An error resulting from the horizon
glass not being perpendicular is called side
error
set the index arm at zero and direct the line of sight at a star
Then rotate the tangent screw back and forth so that the
reflected image passes alternately above and below the direct
view
If, in changing from one position to the other, the reflected
image passes directly over the unreflected image, no side
error exists.
If it passes to one side, side error exists
Make the appropriate adjustment using two screws behind the
horizon glass

Sextant errors
Adjustable sextant errors
3.Collimation Error: If the line of sight through the
telescope is not parallel to the plane of the instrument, a
collimation error will result. Altitudes measured will be
greater than their actual values. To check for parallelism of
the telescope:
insert it in its collar and observe two stars 90 or more apart
Bring the reflected image of one into coincidence with the direct
view of the other near either the right or left edge of the field of
view (the upper or lower edge if the sextant is horizontal)
Then tilt the sextant so that the stars appear near the opposite
edge
If they remain in coincidence, the telescope is parallel to the
frame; if they separate, it is not
Adjust the collar to correct for non-parallelism

Sextant errors
Non adjustable errors
1. Prismatic error occurs when the faces of the shade
glasses and mirrors are not parallel.
2. Graduation errors occur in the arc, micrometer
drum, and vernier of a sextant which is improperly cut
or incorrectly calibrated
3. Centering error results if the index arm does not
pivot at the exact center of the arcs curvature
Note: The manufacturer normally determines the
magnitude of all three non-adjustable errors and reports
them to the user as instrument error. The navigator
should apply the correction for this error to each sextant
reading

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections
1. Index error:
Is an instrumental error
The sextant has an index error if the index mirror and
horizon mirror are not parallel when the index arm
(alidade) and the drum with minute scale are set
exactly at zero
If the error is more than +/-3,0 we have to reduce it.
We look at the horizon with the telescope: direct
horizon and the reflected horizon should be a
straight line.
We move the drum until we see a straight line: the
reading is the index error.
the index error must be removed or reduced using
the adjusting screw on the horizon mirror

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections

Index error

No index error

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections
2. Dip:
The error is due to the height of the Eye above the
Sea.
Dipshould be subtractedfrom the observed
altitude to get the apparent altitude
observed altitude dip = apparent altitude

3. Refraction:
It is due to the passageof theoptical beamthrough
the layersof air withdifferentdensitythat are
abovethe earth's surface.
Refraction should be subtracted from the apparent
altitude to get the True Altitude

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections
4. Semi-diameter:
It is the last correction (only for the Sun)
The lower limb of the sun is used for solar
observations, therefore the semi-diameter
must be added to the altitude measured
apparent altitude refraction semidiameter (only for Sun) = True Altitude

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections(Nautical almanac)
The Altitude Correction Tables in the
Nautical Almanac give the combined
correction for refraction, semidiameter and parallax under
standard atmosphere conditions,
where atmospheric pressure is
1010mbs (29.5 ins) and temperature
is 10C (50F)

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections(Nautical almanac)
1. For the Sun
the correction is a combination of refraction, semi-diameter
and parallax.

2. For the moon

The tables are divided two parts.
The first part is a tabulated correction, which is the
combination of refraction, semi-diameter and parallax for the
lower limb, so if the altitude of the moon is taken from the
upper limb, then 30 must be subtracted
The second part is the correction for variations in semidiameter and parallax, depending on the horizontal parallax.

3. For the stars and planets

the correction is the refraction correction, and depending on
the date, additional corrections might be required for Venus
and Mars for parallax and phase

Sextant altitude errors and

corrections
Sun

Altitude

Star

3529.5

Sextant Altitude

4828.8

-2.0

Index error

-2.0

-1.2

Instrument error

-1.2

3526.3

Observed Altitude

4825.6

-2.8

Dip

-2.8

3523.5

Apparent Altitude

4822.8

-1.2

Refraction

-0.9

3523.5

True Altitude

4821.9

+15.7

Semi-diameter

NA

3538.0

True Altitude

4821.9

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Sun)

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Stars and Planets)

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections(Moon)

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Sun)

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Stars
and planets)

Sextant altitude-Summary of
corrections from almanac(Moon)

Azimuth
The azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle at the
observers zenith contained between the observers
meridian and the vertical circle passing through the
body.
Basically, azimuth is the bearing of the heavenly
body with respect to the observer
The azimuth can be calculated either
mathematically, or by using the Azimuth Tables
The azimuth is used to observe the compass error
by taking the bearing of the heavenly body and
comparing it with the result of the azimuth
calculation

Procedure for obtaining

Azimuth
1. Ascertain the UT to conduct the azimuth
2. From the Nautical Almanac, extract the GHA
and the declination of the body.
3. Calculate LHA
4. With DR position, calculate the azimuth by ABC
table, or by using ABC formula as follows:
A = tanLat/tanLHA, A is named opposite to latitude
unless 90<LHA<270
B = tanDec/sinLHA. B is named same as declination
C = A+/-B C is named as A or B, whichever is greater

Amplitudes
A celestial bodys amplitude angle is the complement of its azimuth angle
At the moment that a body rises or sets, the amplitude angle is the arc of the
horizon between the body and the East/West point of the horizon where the
observers prime vertical intersects the horizon (at 90)
It is also the point where the plane of the equator intersects the horizon
In practical navigation, a bearing of a body can be observed when it is on
either the celestial or the visible horizon
To determine compass error, simply convert the computed amplitude angle to
true degrees and compare it with the observed compass bearing
The angle is computed by the formula:
sin A = sin Dec / cos Lat.

This formula gives the angle at the instant the body is on the celestial horizon.
The angle is prefixed E if the body is rising and W if it is setting.
This is the only angle in celestial navigation referenced FROM East or West, i.e.
from the prime vertical.
A body with northerly declination will rise and set North of the prime vertical
Likewise, a body with southerly declination will rise and set South of the prime
vertical

Amplitudes
The Sun is on the celestial horizon when its lower limb is
approximately two thirds of a diameter above the visible
horizon
The Moon is on the celestial horizon when its upper limb is
on the visible horizon.
Stars and planets are on the celestial horizon when they are
approximately one Sun diameter above the visible horizon
When observing a body on the visible horizon, a correction
from Table 23 must be applied
This correction accounts for the slight change in bearing as
the body moves between the visible and celestial horizons
It reduces the bearing on the visible horizon to the celestial
horizon, from which the table is computed.

Amplitude
Assuming the body is the Sun the
rule for applying the correction can
be outlined as follows:
Observers Latitude

Rising/Setting

Observed bearing

North

Rising

Add to

North

Setting

Subtract from

South

Rising

Subtract from

South

Setting

Add to

Amplitudes
Step 1:Observe the sun's bearing on the celestial horizon, noting time of
observation. This is best accomplished with an azimuth circle, or telescopic
alidade for smaller bodies.
Step 2:Find time in GMT for use in NA
Step 3: Find Declination, make sure to note whether South or North and the
trend in values, i.e. if the values are increasing, the d correction is to be
added; if the values are decreasing, the d correction is to be subtracted.
Step 4:Convert Latitude and Declination from minutes and seconds into
minutes and tenths of minutes. The easiest way to accomplish this is to use
your calculator and divide the minutes by 60 and add the whole degrees.
(ex. For 28-06 N, 6/60=0.1, 28+0.1= 28.1 N.)
Step 5:Find Amplitude (A) by using the equation sin A= (sin Dec/cos Lat).
Step 6: Finding Zn from A.
Step 7: Solve for Compass Error
Using either TVMDC or GET, solve for compass error or deviation, and you're
done. TVMDC is for correction magnetic compasses, GET is for gyros. GET
stands for Gyro + East error = True, if you know two parts, you can find the
third.

Time and Equation of Time

The Earths rotation on its axis causes the Sun and other celestial bodies to
appear to move across the sky from east to west each day.
If a person located on the Earths equator measured the time interval between
two successive transits overhead of a very distant star, he would be measuring
the period of the Earths rotation.
If he then made a similar measurement of the Sun, the resulting time would be
about 4 minutes longer.
It takes the Sun four minutes longer to complete one apparent revolution
around the earth
Thus, during the course of a day the Sun appears to move eastward with
respect to the stars
The apparent positions of the stars are commonly reckoned with reference to
an imaginary point called the vernal equinox
The vernal equinox is the intersection of the celestial equator and the ecliptic.
The period of the Earths rotation measured with respect to the vernal equinox
is called a sidereal day.
The period with respect to the Sun is called an apparent solar day

Time and Equation of Time

When measuring time by the Earths rotation, using the actual position
of the Sun, or the apparent Sun, results in apparent solar time
Use of the apparent Sun as a time reference results in time of nonconstant rate for at least three reasons:
1. revolution of the Earth in its orbit is not constant
2. time is measured along the celestial equator and the path of the real Sun is not along the
celestial equator.
3. rotation of the Earth on its axis is not constant

To obtain a constant rate of time, we replace the apparent Sun with a

fictitious mean Sun
This mean Sun moves eastward along the celestial equator at a
uniform speed equal to the average speed of the apparent Sun along
the ecliptic
This mean Sun, therefore, provides a uniform measure of time which
approximates the average apparent time
The speed of the mean Sun along the celestial equator is 15 per hour
of mean solar time.

Time and Equation of Time

Mean solar time, or mean time as it is commonly called, is sometimes ahead
of and sometimes behind apparent solar time
his difference, which never exceeds about 16.4 minutes, is called the equation
of time.
The navigator most often deals with the equation of time when determining
the time of upper meridian passage of the Sun
The Sun transits the observers upper meridian at local apparent noon
Were it not for the difference in rate between the mean and apparent Sun, the
Sun would be on the observers meridian when the mean Sun indicated 1200
local time.
The apparent solar time of upper meridian passage, however, is offset from
exactly 1200 mean solar time
This time difference, the equation of time at meridian transit, is listed on the
right hand daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
The sign of the equation of time is negative if the time of Suns meridian
passage is earlier than 1200 and positive if later than 1200
Therefore: Apparent Time = Mean Time + (equation of time).

Nautical Almanac
A publication describing the positions of a selection of celestial bodies for the
purpose of enabling navigators to use celestial navigation to determine the
position of their ship while at sea.
The Almanac specifies for each whole hour of the year the position on the
Earth's surface (in declination and Greenwich hour angle) at which the sun,
moon, planets and first point of Aries is directly overhead
The positions of 57 selected stars are specified relative to the first point of
Aries
Published every year since 1767 and 1852 by GB and by US Naval
Observatory
In addition, it gives times of sunrise, sunset, twilights, moonrise and moonset,
phases of the Moon and eclipses of the Sun and Moon for use in the planning
of observations.
All the necessary interpolation and altitude correction tables are provided as
well as pole star tables and diagrams
Information on standard times for most countries around the world is
provided.
A concise set of sight reduction tables and a sight reduction form are also
included.

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Contents
Tables for correction of altitudes of the Sun, stars and
planets
Additional refraction corrections for non-standard
temperature and pressure
phases of the moon, calendar of the year and note on
maps giving information on eclipses occurring in the year
The planet diagram for the year showing LMT for the
Meridian passages of the planets i.e. Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
The diagram indicates the period when each planet is too
close to the Sun and when they are suitable for observation
Indicates whether they are available for morning or evening
sights
Indicates the positions of the planets at twilight

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Contents
Ephimeris for the entire year tabulated against GMT and
dates
Each pair of facing pages in the ephimeris section provide
information concerning
1.Aries
GHA for each hour
GMT of Meridian Passage for the middle day
Note: The GMT for meridian passage for preceding or succeeding days can be
found by adding or subtracting 23hrs and 56m

2.Planets
GHA and declination of the planets for Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
for each hour
Magnitudes as well as v and d corrections applicable on all three days
SHAs at 0000hrs GMT
GMT of their middle date and the GMT of their Greenwich Mer. Pass. are
listed below the star tables

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3. Stars
SHAs and declinations of 57 different stars
They are valid for all three days

4. Sun
GHA and declination provided for each hour
The Semidiameter for the middle day and d
applicable for all three days
Equation of time tabulated for 00hrs and 12hrs
GMT on each of the three days
GMT of Greenwich Meridian passage of the Sun on
each of the three days

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5. Moon
GHA, declination, v. d and horizontal parallax values are provided
for each hour
The moons SD is given for each of three days
GMT of upper and lower meridian passages of the moon over
Greenwich Meridian on each of the three days.
Note: v and d corrections:
The increment tables provided at the end of the almanac are based on the
assumption that the hourly increase in the GHA of
a. Sun and planets=1500
b. Aries = 1502.46
c. Moon = 1419
The values of v tabulated in the daily pages of the almanac are the actual
hourly increase in the GHA of these bodies in excess of the assumed values
stated above.
V is generally positive except sometimes in the case of Venus which due to its
proximity tends to have a more rapid motion than other planets and hence the
v correction might be negative
V for the moon is never negative

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Notes: V and d corrections
V correction values for Aries and Sun are not tabulated since
the assumed hourly GHA increase almost never differs from
the assumed GHA increment values
d is the hourly change in the declination of various bodies
Whether its an increase or decrease can be found by visual
inspection of the almanac around that time
d is not tabulated for Aries as its always on the equinoctial
with a constant nil declination
For the sun and planets the d listed is the mean value of the
hourly change of declination for the three days on the page
For the Moon it is tabulated hourly due to rapid change in
declination
The actual v and d correction for any duration of minutes
and seconds is obtained from the increment and correction
tables towards the end of the almanac

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Explanation are also provided in the almanac regarding:
Principle and arrangements of the almanac and how to correctly use the
information provided in it
Procedures for using the present Nautical Almanac in the following year

Tables of standard time gives the time difference between GMT and the
standard time of different areas of the world
Star charts are provided separately showing the northern, southern and
equatorial stars. These charts help in the identification of important stars.
A table containing a list of 173 stars in order of ascending SHA with
information on
Constellation names(left hand corner)
Magnitude
Proper names
SHAs and declinations for each month

The Polaris table provides the corrections a, a1 and a2 to be applied to

the true altitude of Polaris to obtain its latitude
Information for obtaining the azimuth of Polaris
Explanations regarding how to use these tables along with an example

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Table of interpolation of LMT of sunrise, sunset,
twilight, moonrise and moonset as well as
moons mer. Pass. for the required latitude
Table II for interpolating the times of the above
phenomena for longitude
Index of the selected stars(57) which gives the
number, SHA and declination(to the nearest
degree) both in alphabetical and numerical order
Altitude correction tables for the moon which
contain tye corrections to be applied to observed
latitudes of moons lower and upper limbs

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The Nautical Almanac gives the
location data for 173 stars
from this listing 57 stars have been
chosen from amongst these on
account of brightness and
distribution in the sky
The location of a star is given by its
sidereal hour angle (S.H.A.) and its
declination (Dec.)

Position Fixing
Position lines
A line somewhere on which the ship must be
situated
True bearing of a terrestrial object provides position
line in a direction opposite to bearing
Its not possible to obtain a ships position from a
single position line
Atleast two position lines are required to fix position
Their intersection gives the position of the ship
The accuracy of the fix increases as the angle
between the position lines approaches 90

Position Fixing
Position circles
From the vertical sextant angle of an object, it is
possible to determine the distance of an object of
known height
The distance calculated will then be used to draw a
circle of a radius equal to the calculated distance
with the object at the center
The observer will be in any of the points on the
circumference of that circle
By measuring the sextant of another object of known
height and drawing a similar circle, the intersection
of the two circles will be the position of the observer

Position Fixing
Transferred position lines:
Position lines maybe transferred through the course
and distance made good(provided course and
distance are known
Allowance for drift or leeway should be accounted for
In this case the ship will located along the transferred
position line
Hence by taking the bearing of the same object at a
different time a fix can be obtained
Position circles can also be transferred by shifting the
center of the position circle along the course and
distance made good

Celestial position fixing

concept
Sight reduction: Reducing a celestial sight to
obtain a line of position using the tables
consists of six steps:
1. Correct the sextant altitude (hs) to obtain
observed altitude (ho).
2. Determine the bodys GHA and declination (dec.).
3. Select an assumed position (AP) and find its local
hour angle (LHA).
4. 4. Compute altitude and azimuth for the AP.
5. Compare the computed and observed altitudes.
6. Plot the line of position.

Celestial position fixing

concept
Celestial navigation involves determining a circular line
of position based on an observers distance from a
celestial bodys geographic position (GP)
Should the observer determine both a bodys GP and his
distance from the GP, he would have enough information
to plot a line of position;
he would be somewhere on a circle whose center was the
GP and whose radius equaled his distance from that GP.
That circle, from all points on which a bodys measured
altitude would be equal, is a circle of equal altitude
There is a direct proportionality between a bodys
altitude as measured by an observer and the distance of
its GP from that observer; the lower the altitude, the
farther away the GP

Position fixing-Marc St. Hilare

method
This methods procedure for plotting lines of position is as follows:
1. find the estimated position with an accuracy of 50 nautical miles (in order to get
a fix with 1 nautical mile maximum error due to the method itself);
2. observe with the sextant a star altitude Hs at the time C (GMT);
3. Correct the sextant altitude Hs with the instrumental error, the dip of the
apparent horizon, the terrestrial refraction, the astronomic refraction, the
parallax, the semi diameter of the star(if needed) to get the Ho(observed
altitude)
4. Find azimuth of the body by using ABC tables, or the following formula:
tan AZ= sin LHA/(tanDec.cosLat.-cosLHAsinLat.)
Note: For above formula, if the name of latitude of observer is contrary to
the declination of the celestial body, then the declination of celestial
body is treated as a negative quantity.
5. Compute the calculated Hc
6. Compute the intercept = Ho-HC
7. Plot the line of bearing (azimuth of the star) from the estimated position
8. Plot the line of position perpendicular to the bearing, at a distance equal to the
computed intercept from the estimated position,; away if Hc>Ho
9. Start over again to get another line of position from a different object;

Position fixing-Marc St. Hilare

method
Note on the Marc St. Hilare method:
When using the formula to calculate the
azimuth, the following factors need to be
taken into account
1. If denominator is negative, azimuth will be named
South (S).
2. If denominator is positive, azimuth will be named
North (N).
3. If LHA is between 0 and 180, azimuth will be
named West (W).
4. If LHA is between 180 and 360, azimuth will be
named East (E).

Pole Star Observation

Polaris is a star close to the North Pole; it
circles around the pole at a distance or
radius of 1. In the figure below:
NZ=PQ=90
NZ=NP+PZ
PQ=QZ+PZ
Therefore, NP=QZ
Altitude of North Pole=Latitude of
Observer

Pole Star Observation

If Polaris coincides with the north celestial pole, then the altitude of
Polaris is the latitude of the observer
However, Polaris is not coinciding with the pole but is circling around the
pole. In the diagram, Xs circle represents the daily path of Polaris around
the pole.
At X : Altitude of Polaris: NX1 Latitude =NX1- PX1
At X : Altitude of Polaris: NX2 Latitude =NX2 + PX2

At position X1 , the correction is negative with the quantity as the

distance from Polaris to the pole
As it goes further in an anticlockwise direction, the correction quantity
gets smaller but is still negative up to a one-instant position where the
correction become nil
Then, the quantity of the correction becomes positive and increases until
it is on transit with the pole and with the observer (X2 ), where the
correction is positive and is equal to the distance from Polaris to the pole
Continuing to move to the west side of the observers meridian, the
result is similar, except that the correction is from positive to negative
until the star is back to position X1

Pole Star Observation

In the Nautical Almanac, the
correction is tabulated in three
quantities, a0 , a1 and a2 .
They contain a constant that will give
a positive value in all cases; the sum
of the constants is 1. Hence:
Latitude = True Altitude + a0 + a1 + a2 - 1

Pole Star Observation

Procedure for obtaining the latitude by Polaris altitude:
1. Obtain UT of Aries at the time of observation;
2. Find LHA of Aries by using following formula:
3. Find true altitude of Polaris from sextant altitude;
4. Use Pole Star Table to find correction a0 , a1 , a2 and azimuth of
Polaris by using the LHA and DR latitude. If DR latitude is
unknown, then apparent altitude or true latitude can be used;
5. Add corrections a0 , a1 and a2 to true altitude of Polaris and
subtract 1 to obtain the latitude of the observer.
Note:
1.Correction a0 is needed to interpolate if necessary, but corrections a1 and
a2 are unnecessary for interpolation.
2.The azimuth is used to find the position line which lies at right angles to the
azimuth.
3.The position line is running 90 to the bearing or azimuth of star; generally,
the bearing should not exceed 2 off the bearing of the North Pole,
therefore the position line may be taken to run 90/270.

Important selected formulae

1. Amplitude = Sin-1(SinDec/CosLat)
2. Azimuth = Tan1
(SinLHA/TanDec.CosLatCosLHASinLat)
3. CZD = Cos-1(Sinlat.SinDec +
CosLat.CosDec.CosLHA)