Chapter 10:

Cells to multicellular organisms

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Introduction
Cells are organised in a hierarchy of structural levels.

There are patterns in the basic structural organisation

of cells.

These patterns are used to classify cells as either

prokaryotic or
eukaryotic.

All share a similar overall pattern:

plasma membrane
cytosol
genetic material
ribosomes.

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Unicellular organisms
Unicellular prokaryotes Archaea and Bacteria are thought
to be the earliest organisms to inhabit Earth.
Eukaryotic cells have complex structure and can perform
more processes.
Ancestral unicellular eukaryotic organisms may resemble
protozoans (proto = first, zoa = animals).
Protozoans are heterotrophic unicellular organisms.
Single cell has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio.
Plasma membrane (its surface area) is sufficient to service
cytoplasm.
Oxygen, nutrients and carbon dioxide diffuse directly
across the plasma membrane to meet cells needs.

Surface area to volume ratio

Surface area = area outside an object

Volume = amount of space inside an object

As cube size increases or cell gets bigger, then the surface area to volume ratio
decreases

A very small cell has a large surface are to volume ratio

A very large cell has a small surface area to volume ratio

When a cell grows its volume increases at a greater rate then its surface area,
therefore its surface area to volume ratio decreases

Cells increase their SA:V by having:

Long thin shape (nerve cells)
Folding the surface of the object/membrane

Calculate the SA:V of a cube that is

2cm
4cm
6cm
8cm

Why Surface area to volume ratio is important

Cells need to be small because they rely on diffusion for getting substances
into and out of their cells

When a cell grows there is comparatively less membrane for the substances to
diffuse through which may result in the centre of the cell not receiving the
substances that it needs. The cell may need to divide into two smaller cells
which will have a larger SA:V

SA:V ratio in unicellular organisms

Their small size means they have a larger SA:V & it is adequate for many of the
materials to move into & out of the cell by diffusion & active transport. But it limits the
size of the organism. Once they get too big, they must divide

SA:V ratio in multicellular organisms

By being multicellular, plants & animals have overcome the problems of small cell
sizes. Each cell has a large SA:V ratio but they have evolved features such as gas
exchange organs (lungs) & circulatory systems to speed up & aid the movement of
materials into & out of the organism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuG4ZZ1GbzI

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Unicellular organisms

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

(a)

Multicellularity
(b)
Figure 10.7
a) Sponges do not have a
definite head, tail or body
organs. If a sponge was
broken into fragments, each
individual fragment could go
on living and growing.
b) The feeding cells of
sponges.

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Multicellularity
Sponges have resulted from cooperation between single
choanoflagellates and other kinds of cells.
What is the structure supports and keeps them together?
Solutions to this challenge:
1. Some sponges (e.g. bath sponge) use a material called
sponging (a variety of collagen) that results in an
interlinked microscopic framework.
2. Other sponges use calcium carbonate.
3. Others use a glass-like framework made of silica.

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Multicellularity
The evolution from unicellular organisms to
multicellular organisms required three organising
principles.
1. Cell division
2. Specialisation (one function)
3. Communication with other cells

Increasing complexity: from unicellular to multicellular

Multicellularity
Branching out into plants, animals and fungi.

Multicellular plants evolved from primitive algal

organisms.
Fungi arose from ancestral flagellates, such as the
choanoflagellates and are more closely related to
animals than to plants.
Animal cells have the ability to move around in their
environments.

Cell specialisation and differentiation

Stem cells

Cell specialisation and differentiation

Identical genetic code - different

function?

As cell layers migrate in the embryo to different

regions, genes are switched on or off in response
to neighbouring cells and environmental cues.
Cell appearance and function is determined by
active genes.
Specialised

Patterns in levels of organisation

Patterns in levels of organisation

Animal cell specialisation and

organisation

Cells form tissues

Multicellular organism have

four major tissue divisions:
epithelium
connective tissue
nervous
Muscle.

Patterns in levels of organisation

Animal cell specialisation and organisation

Patterns in levels of organisation

Animal cell specialisation and

Epithelial tissue is a covering
organisation
that protects organs, lines
body cavities & covers the
surface of the body
Epithelial cells are usually
organised into tightly packed
single or layered sheets
This organisation increases
their effectiveness as
barriers which protect
against mechanical injury,
invasive micro-organisms &
loss of fluid

Patterns in levels of organisation

Animal cell specialisation and organisation

Patterns in levels of organisation

Animal cell specialisation and

organisation

Patterns in levels of organisation

Plant cell specialisation and organisation