DeGarmos Materials and Processes in

Manufacturing by JT Black && Ronald Kohser

CHAPTER 8: Nonmetallic
Materials: Plastics, Elastomers,
Ceramics and Composites
Submitted by
Marriane Braganza
Yusoph Hassan Macarambon
Dedan James Arieta

TOPICS

PLASTICS
Molecular Structure of Plastics

Oriented Plastics

Isomers

Engineering Plastics

Forming Molecules by

Plastics as Adhesives

Polymerization

Plastics for Tooling

Thermosetting and

Foamed Plastics

Thermoplastic Materials

Polymer Coatings

Properties and Applications

Plastics versus Other

Common Types or Families of

Plastics
Additive Agents in Plastics

Materials
Recycling of Plastics

ELASTOMERS
Rubber
Artificial Elastomers
Selection of an Elastomer
Elastomers for Tooling
Applications

CERAMICS
Nature and Structure of
Ceramics
Ceramics Are Brittle but Can
Be Tough

Glasses
Glass Ceramics
Cermets
Cements

Clay and Whiteware Products

Ceramic Coatings

Refractory Materials

Ceramics for Mechanical

Abrasives

Applications: The Structural

Ceramics for Electrical and

Magnetic Applications

and Advanced Ceramics

Advanced Ceramics as
Cutting Tools

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Laminar or Layered
Composites
Particulate Composites
Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Advanced Fiber-Reinforced
Composites
Hybrid Composites
Design and Fabrication
Assets and Limitations
Areas of Application

OBJECTIVES
To enhance and widen the knowledge of students about
plastics, ceramics, elastomers and composite materials. In
terms of:

To be familiarized with different types and families of

plastics. Also, to know its uses and how theyre being
applied in different aspects in industry.

To know more about different kinds of elastomers and for

tooling applications.

Important roles of ceramics materials in a number of

engineering applications.

The properties of the individual components; the relative

amounts of the components of composite materials.

PLASTICS

 Molecular Structure of
Most plastics containorganicpolymers. The
Plastics
vast majority of these polymers are based on
chains
ofcarbonatoms
alone
or
withoxygen,sulfur, ornitrogenas well. The
backbone is that part of the chain on the main
"path" linking a large number of repeat units
together. To customize the properties of a plastic,
different molecular groups "hang" from the
backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the
monomers before the monomers are linked
together to form the polymer chain). The
structure of these "side chains" influence the
properties of the polymer. This fine tuning of the
repeating unit's molecular structure influences
the properties of the polymer.
Most
plastics
contain
other
organic
orinorganic compoundsblended in. The amount
of additives ranges from zero percentage (for
example in polymers used to wrap foods) to more
than 50% for certain electronic applications. The
average content of additives is 20% by weight of

 Isomers

 Forming Molecules by
Polymerization

The polymerization process, or linking of molecules occurs by either an

Addition - which number of basic units (monometers) link together to
form a large molecule (polymer) in which there is repeated unit (mer)

Degree of polymerization average numbers of mers in the

polymer, ranges from 75 to 750 for most commercial plastics.
Copolymers special category of polymer where two different types of
mers are combined into the same addition chain. The formation of
copolymers, analogous to alloys in metals, greatly expands the
possibilities of creating new types of plastics with improved physical and
mechanical properties.
Terpolymers further extend the possibilities by combining three
different monomers.

Condensation polymerization occurs when reactive

moleculescombine with one another to produce a polymer plus small,
by-product molecules, such as water.

 Thermosetting and Thermoplastic

Materials

 Properties and Applications

General properties of plastics include:
1. Light weight Most plastics have specific gravities between 1.1 and 1.6
compared with about 1.7 for magnesium.
2. Corrosion resistance Many plastic perform well in hostile, corrosive, or
chemical environments. Some are notably resistant to acid corrosion.
3. Electrical resistance Plastics are widely used as insulating materials.
4. Low thermal conductivity Plastics are relatively good thermal
insulators.
5. Variety of optical properties Many plastics has an almost unlimited
color range, and the color goes throughout, not just on the surface. Both
transparent and opaque materials are available.
6. Formability or ease of fabrication Objects can frequently be
produced from plastic in a single operation. Raw material can be converted
to final shape through such processes as casting, extrusion, and molding.
Relatively low temperatures are required for the forming of plastics.
7. Surface finish - The same processes that produce the shape also
produce excellent surface finish Additional surface finishing may not be
required.
8. Comparatively low cost - The low cost of plastics generally applies to
both the material itself and the manufacturing process. Plastics frequently
offer reduced tool costs and high rates of production.
9. Low energy content

 Common Types or Families of

THERMOPLASTICS
Plastics

ABS: contains acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene;

low weight, good strength, and very tough; resists
heat, weather, and chemicals quite well;
dimensionally stable but flammable
Acrylics: highest optical clarity, transmitting over
90% of light; common trade names include Lucite
and Plexiglas; high-impact, flexural, tensile, and
dielectric strengths; available in a wide range of
colors; resist weathering
Cellulose acetate: wide range of colors; good
insulating qualities; easily molded; high moisture
absorption in most grades
Cellulose acetate butyrate: higher impact strength
and moisture resistance than cellulose acetate; will
withstand rougher usage
Ethyl cellulose: high electrical resistance and impact
strength; retains toughness at low temperatures

THERMOSETS

Epoxies: good strength, toughness, elasticity, chemical

resistance, moisture resistance, and dimensional stability;
easily compounded to cure at room temperature; used as
adhesives, bonding agents, coatings, and in fiber
laminates
Melamines: excellent resistance to heat, water, and many
chemicals; full range of translucent and opaque colors;
excellent electric arc resistance; tableware (but stained by
coffee); used extensively in treating paper and cloth to
impart water-repellent properties
Phenolics: oldest of the plastics but still widely used; hard,
strong, low cost, and easily molded, but rather brittle;
resistant to heat and moisture; dimensionally stable;
opaque, but with a wide color range; wide variety of forms:
sheet, rod, tube, and laminate; trade names include
Bakelite.
Polyesters (can be thermoplastic or thermoset): strong and
good resistance to environmental influences; uses include
boat and car bodies, pipes, vents and ducts, textiles,
adhesives, coatings, and laminates
Silicones: heat and weather resistant; low moisture
absorption; chemically inert; high dielectric properties;
excellent sealants

 Additive Agents in Plastics

For most uses, additional materials are incorporated into plastics to
(1) impart or improve properties
(2) reduce cost
(3) improve moldability, and
(4) impart color
These additive constituents are usually classified as fillers and reinforcements,
plasticizers, lubricants, coloring agents, stabilizers, antioxidants, and flame
retardants.

Fillers comprise a large percentage of the total volume of a molded

plastic product. Some of the most common fillers and their
properties are:
1. Wood flour (fine sawdust): a general-purpose filler; low cost with
fair strength; good moldability
2. Cloth fibers: improved impact strength; fair moldability
3. Macerated cloth: high impact strength; limited moldability
4. Glass fibers: high strength; dimensional stability; translucence
5. Mica: excellent electrical properties and low moisture absorption
6. Calcium carbonate, silica, talc, and clay: serve primarily as
extenders
Coloring agents may be either dyes, which are soluble in the resins, or
insoluble pigments, which impart color simply by their presence.

 Plasticizers can be added in small amounts to reduce viscosity

and improve the flow of the plastic during molding or to
increase the flexibility of thermoplastic products by reducing
the intermolecular contact and strength of the secondary bonds
between the polymer chains.

ELASTOMER
S

WHAT IS ELASTOMERS?
- The term elastomer, a contraction
of the words elastic polymer, refers
to a special class of linear polymers
that display an exceptionally large
amount of elastic deformation when
a force is applied. Many can be
stretched to several times their
original length. The elastic
properties of most engineering
materials are the result of a change
in the distance between adjacent
atoms (i.e., bond length) when
loads are applied.
- Hookes law is commonly obeyed,
where twice the force produces
twice the stretch. When the applied
load is removed, the interatomic
forces return all of the atoms to
their original position and the
elastic deformation is recovered
completely.

i.

Rubber

Naturalcan
rubber,
the rubber
oldest
ADVANTAGES:
Rubber
now
Natural
be
commercialare
elastomer,
compounds
compounded
tooutstanding
provideisa made
for
fromflexibility;
latex,
from the
their
wide
range aofsecretion
characteristics,
good electrical
inner bark
of a
tropical
tree. Inand
its
insulation;
ranging
from
low
soft
internal
and friction;
crude form
itmost
is aninorganic
excellentacids,
resistance
gummy
totoextremely
adhesive,
and
many cements can
salts,
hard.When
and alkalis.
additional
be made is
byrequired,
dissolving
it in suitable
DISADVANTAGES:
strength
They have
poor
solvents.
Its petroleum
use
as an engineering
resistance
textile
cords
to
or fabrics
can
products,
material
1839,
when
such
be
coated
as oil,dates
gasoline,
with from
rubber.
and
The
naphtha.
Charles
Goodyear
discovered
Infibers
addition,
carry
they
the lose
load,their
and strength
the
that
it could
beasvulcanized
(crossatrubber
elevated
serves
temperatures,
a matrixso
to
it is
linked)
thethey
addition
of used
aboutat
advisable
join
theby
cords
that
while
not
isolating
be
30% sulfur
followed
by heating
to a
temperatures
them
from one
above
another
80C
to(175F).
suitable
temperature.
Unless
prevent
they
chafing.
are specially
compounded, they also deteriorate
fairly rapidly in direct sunlight.

ii. Artificial Elastomers

Polyisoprene is the synthetic that is closest to duplicating natural
rubber.
Styrenebutadiene is an oil-derivative, high-volume substitute for
natural rubber that has become the standard material for passengercar tires. For this material, some form of reinforcement is generally
required to provide the desired tensile strength, tear resistance, and
durability.
Neoprenes have properties similar to natural rubber, with better
resistance to oils, ozone, oxidation, and flame. They are used for a wide
range of applications, including automotive hoses and belts, footwear,
tires, mounting cushions, and seals. A number of other artificial
elastomers are available and are identified by both chemical and
commercial trade names.
Silicone rubbers look and feel like organic rubber but are based on a
linear chain of silicon and oxygen atoms (not carbon). Various mixes
and blends offer retention of physical properties at elevated
temperatures [as hot as 230C (450F)]; flexibility at low temperatures
[as low as100C (150F)]; resistance to acids, bases, and other aqueous
and organic fluids; resistance to flex fatigue; ability to absorb energy
and provide damping; good weatherability; ozone resistance; and
availability in a variety of different

iii. Selection of an Elastomer

Elastomeric materials can now be selected and used for a wide
range of engineering applications, where they impart properties that
include shock absorption, noise and vibration control, sealing, corrosion
protection, abrasion protection, friction modification, electrical and
thermal insulation, waterproofing, and load bearing. Selection of an
elastomer for a specific application requires consideration of many
factors, including the mechanical and physical service requirements, the
operating environment (including temperature), the desired lifetime, the
ability to manufacture the product, and cost.
There are a number of families, and within each family there exists
a wide range of available properties. Moreover, almost any physical or
mechanical property can be altered through additives, which can also
be used to enhance processing or reduce cost, and modifications of the
processing parameters.

iv. Elastomers for Tooling Applications

When an elastomer is confined, it acts like a fluid, transmitting
force uniformly in all directions. For this reason, elastomers can be
substituted for one-half of a die set in sheet-metal-forming
operations. Elastomers are also used to perform bulging and to form
reentrant sections that would be impossible to form with rigid dies
except through the use of costly multipiece tooling. The engineering
elastomers have become increasingly popular as tool materials
because they can be compounded to range from very soft to very
hard; hold up well under compressive loading; are impervious to oils,
solvents,and other similar fluids; and can be made into a desired
shape quickly and economically.
In addition, the elastomeric tooling will not mark or damage highly
polished or prepainted surfaces. The urethanes are currently the most
popular elastomer for tooling applications.

CERAMIC
S

i. Nature and Structure of Ceramics

Ceramic materials are compounds of metallic and
nonmetallic elements and exist in a wide variety of
compositions and forms.
The absence of free electrons makes the ceramic
materials poor electrical conductors and because of the
strength of the primary bonds, most ceramics have
high melting temperatures, high rigidity, and high
compressive strength.
The crystalline ceramics do not soften, but they can
creep at elevated temperature by means of grain
boundary sliding. Therefore, when ceramic materials
are produced for elevated-temperature service, large
grain size is generally desired.

ii. Ceramics are Brittle but Can Be Tough

Both crystalline and nonmetallic ceramics tend to be
brittle. Ceramic materials surround particles of brittle
ceramic with a continuous matrix of tough, fractureresistant metal. Transformation toughening stopts the
progress of a crack by crystal structure changes that occur
when volume expansion is permitted. Fine grain size, high
purity, and high density can be promoted by enhance
processing, and these all act to improve toughness.
iii. Clay and Whiteware Products
Many ceramic products are still based on clay, to which
various amount of quartz and feldspar and other materials
are added. The selected proportions are mixed with water,
shaped, dried, and fired to produce the structural clay
products of brick, roof, and structural tiles, as well as the
whitewear products of sanitary ware.

iv. Refractory Materials

Refractory materials are ceramics that have
been design to provide acceptable mechanical or
chemical properties at high operating temperatures.
They may take the form of bricks and shaped
products, and most are based on stable oxide
compounds.
Refractory ceramics fall into three distinct classes;
acidic, basic, and neutral.

v. Abrasives
Because of their high hardness, ceramic
materials, such as silicon carbide and aluminum
oxide are often use for abrasive application, such as
grinding. Materials such as manufactured diamond
have such phenomenal properties that they are often
turned superabrasives.

vi. Ceramics for Electrical and Magnetic

Applications

Ceramic materials also offer variety of useful electrical

and magnetic properties. Some ceramics such as
silicon carbide, are use as resistors and heating
elements for electric furnaces. High density claybased ceramics and aluminum oxide make excellent
high- voltage insulators.
vii. Glasses
When some molten ceramics are cold at a rate that
exceeds a critical value, the materials solidifies into a
hard, rigid, non crystalline solid, none as a glass. Most
commercial glasses are based on silica, lime, and
sodium carbonate. Glass is soft and moldable when
hot, making shaping rather straightforward. When cool
and solid, glass is strong in compression but brittle and
weak tension. Glass and other ceramic fibers have
been used for filtration, where they provide a chemical
inertness and a possibility to withstand elevated
temperature.

viii. Glass Ceramics

Since they were initially formed as a glass, glass
ceramics do not have the strength- limiting or fracture
inducing porosity that is characteristics of the
conventional sintered ceramic. Strength is greater than
with the traditional glasses.
ix. Cermets
Cermets are combinations of metals and ceramics
usually oxides, carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides,
united into a single products by the procedures of
powder metallurgy. This usually involves pressing mixed
powder at pressures ranging from 70-280 MPa followed
by sintering in a controlled atmosphere furnace at
about 1, 650 degree Celsius. Cermets combined the
high hardness and refractory characteristics of ceramics
with the toughness and thermal shock resistance of
metals.
x. Cements
Various ceramic materials can harden by chemical
reaction, enabling their use as a binder that does not
require firing or sintering. Sodium silicate hardens in the
presence of carbon dioxide and is used to produce sand
cores in metal casting.

xi. Ceramics Coatings

A wide spectrum of enamels, glazes, and other
ceramic coating have been developed to decorate,
seal, and protect substrate materials.
xii. Ceramics for Mechanical Applications: The
Structural and Advanced Ceramics
Because of the strong ionic or covalent bonding and
high shear resistance, ceramic materials tend to have
low ductility and high compressive strength.
Theoretically, ceramics could also have high tensile
strengths. However, because of their high melting point
and lack of ductility, most ceramics are processed in
the solid state, where products are made from
powdered material.

xiii. Advanced Ceramics as Cutting Tools

Their high hardness, retention of hardness at
elevated temperature and low reactivity with metals
make ceramic materials attractive for cutting
applications, and cutting tools have improved
significantly through advances in ceramic technology.
These are the following advance ceramics as cutting
tools: cobalt bonded tungsten carbide, silicon carbide,
titanium carbide, titanium nitrite and aluminum oxide.

viii. Oriented Plastics

Because the intermolecular bond strength increases with
reduced separation distance, any processing that aligns the
molecules parallel to the applied load can be used to give the
long-chain thermoplastics high strength in a given direction.
This orientation process can be accomplished by a forming
process, such as stretching, rolling, or extrusion. The material is
usually heated prior to the orienting process to aid in
overcoming the intermolecular forces and is cooled
immediately afterward to freeze the molecules in the desired
orientation. Orienting may increase the tensile strength by
more than 50%, but a 25% increase is more typical. In addition,
the elongation may be increased by several hundred percent. If
the oriented plastics are reheated, they tend to deform back
toward their original shape, a phenomenon known as
viscoelastic memory. The various shrink-wrap materials are
examples of this effect.

COMPOSI
TE
MATERIAL
S

WHAT IS COMPOSITE MATERIALS?

A composite material (also called a composition material or
shortened to composite) is a material made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical
properties that, when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components
Typicalengineeredcomposite materials include:
Composite building materials, such ascements,concrete
Reinforced plastics, such asfiber-reinforced polymer
Metalcomposites
Ceramic composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
Composite materials are generally used forbuildings, bridges, and
structures such as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies,
showerstalls,bathtubs, storage tanks, imitationgraniteandcultured
marblesinksand countertops. The most advanced examples perform
routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments.

i.

Laminar or Layered Composites

Laminar composites have distinct layers of

material bonded together in some manner and
include thin coatings, thicker protective surfaces,
claddings, bimetallics, laminates, sandwiches,
and others.They are used to impart properties
such as reduced cost, enhanced corrosion
resistance or wear resistance, electrical insulation
or conductivity, unique expansion characteristics,
lighter weight, improved strength, or altered
appearance.
EXAMPLE: Plywood is probably the most common
engineering material in this category and is an
example of a laminate material. Layers of wood
veneer are adhesively bonded with their grain
orientations at various angles to one another.
Strength and fracture resistance are improved,
properties are somewhat uniform within the plane
of the sheet, swelling and shrinkage tendencies
are minimized, and large pieces are available at
reasonable cost.

ii. Particular Composites

Particulate composites consist of discrete
particles of one material surrounded by a matrix
of another material.
EXAMPLE: Concrete is a classic example,
consisting of sand and gravel particles
surrounded by hydrated cement.Asphalt
consists of similar aggregate in a matrix of
bitumin, a thermoplastic polymer. In both of
these examples, the particles are rather coarse.
Other particulate composites involve extremely
fine particles and include many of the
multicomponent powder metallurgy products,
specifically those where the dispersed particles
do not diffuse into the matrix material.

iii. Fiber- Reinforced

Composites
The most popular type of composite
material is the fiber-reinforced composite
geometry, where continuous or
discontinuous thin fibers of one material
are embedded in a matrix of another. The
objective is usually to enhance strength,
stiffness, fatigue resistance, or strengthto-weight ratio by incorporating strong,
stiff, but possibly brittle, fibers in a softer,
more ductile matrix.
EXAMPLE: Wood and bamboo are two
naturally occurring fiber composites,
consisting of cellulose fibers in a lignin
matrix. Bricks of straw and mud may well
have been the first human-made material
of this variety.

ii. Particular Composites

Particulate composites consist of
discrete particles of one material
surrounded by a matrix of another
material.
EXAMPLE: Concrete is a classic
example, consisting of sand and gravel
particles surrounded by hydrated
cement.Asphalt consists of similar
aggregate in a matrix of bitumin, a
thermoplastic polymer. In both of these
examples, the particles are rather
coarse. Other particulate composites
involve extremely fine particles and
include many of the multicomponent
powder metallurgy products,
specifically those where the dispersed
particles do not diffuse into the matrix
material.