5.

Magnification by rack
and pinion

Rack and pinion principle

Various types of gear trains used in gauges

Magnification system is incorporated in the dial

indicator

Dial indicator consist of gear train actuated by a rack

cut in a spindle

Motion to be measured

Spring imposes spindle force to maintain a reasonably

uniform and positive contact

 Lost motion is minimized by positive force of a

small coil spring
Dial gauge is permanently attached to a structure
Indicates the deformation or deflection

6. Combined lever, rack and pinion magnification

Combination of lever system and rack and pinion

principle

Self contained instrument

Consist of 2 frames A and B, bound together by 2

elastic hinges

Elastic hinges are meant for parallel frictionless motion

Contact point C is attached with each frame

the contact points are inserted into the drilled holes

 Motion between 2 frame members or strain is

measured directly with a dial indicator
This strain gauge is ruggedly encased and well
suited for handling

OPTICAL STRAIN GAUGES

Measure the elongations and deflections either
linear or angular by optical systems
The instruments using two principles
Optical lever principle
Mechanical lever principle

In optical lever principle

Lever consist of a short mechanical arm holding a
mirror which reflects beam of light
Angular movement of reflected beam is magnified
by optical system
In mechanical lever principle
Magnification is obtained by solid levers
Reference marks are provided at the ends of the
arm

1. Optical lever principle

Mirror system is used to obtain the optical magnification

Optical systems employ a single mirror, two mirrors or
three mirrors

Example for single mirror system:

 Fixed scale is observed through a telescope by

tilting the mirror M
The mirror M is fastened to the rotatable knife
edge , pivot point is rigidly held by a fixed arm D
Other end is fastened to the specimen by fixed
knife edge D
As specimen elongates, the measuring knife edge
will rotate about its pivot point by tilting the mirror
While mirror tilts, different portion of the scale are
seen, gives the reading
Measure of angle of tilt

 The magnification M is
M=(S/L)= (A tan2)/B sin= 2A/B
The distance B=5mm
A=500xB
High sensitive
Magnification factor is 500

 Example for two mirror system

 Mirror M1 is fixed and M2 is movable one

The relative motion between M1 and M2 are
measured with a autocollimator
Autocollimator will trace the ray of light originating
point and it focuses the image on the plane
The light strikes and reflects from M1
Further the light reflects by M2 which is attached
to rotating knife edge

Mechanical lever principle

Movement is magnified by mechanical levers
Observation will be obtained by the telescope
Gauge length=2.54 mm
Two levers are held together by springs
These springs permit the arms to rotate relative to
each other without altering their distance
A beam of light is passed through the slit and
directed to a photo electric cell

Acoustical Strain Gauge

Acoustical Strain Gauge

Acoustics is a branch of physics which deals about the sound
Vibrating wire or acoustical strain gauge consist steel wire, which
tensioned between the two supports
The variation of distance alerts the natural frequency of vibrations
This change in frequency will correlate with the change in strain
An Electro-Magnet adjacent to the wire used to set the wire in
vibration
This wire movement generate the oscillating signal
This signal will be compared with the pitch of adjustable standard
wire

 The tensioning screw of the standard wire also will

generate the signal
The natural frequency of these 2 signals are compared
Calibration of this screw gives the direct reading of the
change in length of the specimen
High sensitivity
Temperature sensitive
Displacement order of 0.25 cm
Range is limited to 1/1000 of the wire length

Electrical strain gauges

It is a device in which a change in length produces a
change in some electrical characteristics of the gauge
The electrical strain gauges are classified as
1. Inductance or magnetic strain gauges
2. Capacitance strain gauge
3. Electrical resistance strain gauge

Inductance strain gauges

It is a device which the mechanical quantity to be
measured produces a change in magnetic field
Change in impedance of a current carrying coil
Impedance of a coil depends on inductance and on
effective resistance
In above, either or both on these quantities can be
made sensitive
Self inductance of the coil or mutual inductance with
respect to the another coil

Depending upon the method of varying the impedance

the electrical-inductance gauges may be classified as:
1. Variable air-gap gauges
2. Movable-core solenoid gauges
3. Eddy current gauges
4. Magnetostriction gauges

Variable air-gap gauges

Reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by changing
the air gap

Movable-core solenoid gauges

Reluctance of magnetic circuit is varied by changing the
position of the iron core in the coil

Eddy current gauges

Losses in the magnetic circuits are varied by changing
the thickness or position of the high-loss element
inserted in the magnetic field

Magnetostriction gauges
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing
the stress in the magnetic core of the coil

Electromagnetic strain gauge

If a magnetic bar is loaded by a torsional moment, a
voltage is recorded by a galvanometer, connected to a
coil through which the bar is put

Wiedemanns effect
Electromotive force is induced on the coil of the
electromagnet
which depends on the torsional moment acting the core
of the electromagnet which is twisted

Factors influence the magnitude and

linearity of the induced emf are:
Degree of saturation of magnetic field
Geometry of the attachment of the structure
Frequency of power supply
Size of the tube
Number of turns on the wire wound round the tube
Material of the pipes and its conditions

Linear variable Differential

Transformer (LVDT)
It is a device for converting a mechanical displacement
into an electric signal
It consist of hollow concentric non-magnetic form
Three windings are mounted on it, they are primary coil
and two secondary coils
Core is placed within in the coil and it measures the
relative mutual coupling
Thus the voltage developed between the primary and
each of the secondary coils

 When the AC voltage is impressed across the primary

winding and the output of secondary winding connected
in a series position
The net voltage is the difference between primary and
secondary voltages
If the core moves from balance or null position, voltage
of one secondary coil will increase and another will
decrease
Opposite motion core produces a similar voltage but for
opposite phase
The output voltage magnitude is same for either side of
the null balance
Output changes 180 through null

Capacitance strain gauge

 Capacitance of the condenser will change either by

changing space between the condenser plates
Or
Changing by the plate area
The variations due to the spacing of condenser plates
are only the small fraction of the total
As the capacitance of the condenser changes as a result
of strain
The frequency of the oscillation of the circuit changes
Variation in the frequency is indicated by CRO

 Capacitance gauges are very small in size

High frequency response
High temperature resistance
Good linearity resolution
Ability to measure both static and dynamic quantities

 Sensitive to temperature, vibrations

High impedance input
Complexity of associated electronic equipment
Dielectric, mounting, clamping difficulties make this
gauge not too desirable