AND

PHYSIOLO
GY OF THE
EYE

 Special
VISION

Sense

Vision: the act of seeing.

Special sense organ is EYE

For vision light is necessary.

Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy in the form of waves that radiates from the
sun.
There are many types of electromagnetic
radiation :
i. gamma rays,
ii. x-rays,
iii. UV rays,
iv. visible light,
v. infrared radiation,
vi. microwaves, and
vii. radio waves.

.This range of electromagnetic radiation is known

as the electromagnetic spectrum.

 The distance between two consecutive peaks of

an electromagnetic wave is the wavelength.
The eyes are responsible for the detection of
visible light.
An object can absorb certain wavelengths of
visible light and reflect others;
The object will appear the color of the
wavelength that is reflected.

The Eye has 2 major parts :

1.

Optical
formation)

..

Req. maintenance of clear media

..

Req. maintenance of normal IOP

2.

Neural system

Transmission of image to brain and

recognition
&
interpretation
of
image.

(i.e physiology of vision)

system

(Image

Outline

A. Functional Anatomy of the eye:

1. Accessory structures (External
Anatomy of eye)
2. Eye ball structures
a. Fibrous Tunic
b. Vascular Tunic
c. Nervous Tunic
3. Interior of the ball
a. Anterior Cavity
b. Lens
c. Vitreous Chamber
4. Neural pathways : Visual pathway &

External Anatomy of the Eye

The accessory structures of the eye include
the :
1. Eyelids,
2. Eyelashes,
3. Eyebrows,
4. Lacrimal
apparatus, and
5. Extrinsic eye
muscles.

Sagittal
section
of eye
and its
accessor

Eye lids or Palpebrae

Movable curtains present in front of eyeball
From superficial to deep, each eyelid

consists of :
i.

Skin Layer (epidermis,

dermis & subcutaneous tissue)

ii. Orbicularis Oculi

iii. Tarsal plate
iv. Meibomian Gland

Eye lids or Palpebrae

1. Shade the eyes during sleep,
2. Protect the anterior surface of the globe from
dust, debrish,local injury.
3. Aid in regulation of light reaching the eye;
4. In tear film maintenance, by distributing the
protective and optically important tear film over
the cornea during blinking; and
5. In tear flow, by their pumping action on the
conjunctival sac and lacrimal sac.

Eye lashes and Eye brows

Consist of Hair follicles.

They protect the eye from

1. direct sunlight,
2. dust,
3. perspiration and
4. foreign bodies.

Lacrimal Apparatus

Lacrimal Gland
Located in the upper, outer portion of each
orbit of the eye.
Lobulated exocrine glands secreting tears .

Lacrimal Ducts
There are about 6 to 12 in number
They dump tears on the surface of the
conjunctiva of the upper lid through the
palpebral part of the gland

Conjunctiva
The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane
lining the eyelids and covering the anterior
eyeball up to the edge of the cornea.
Bulbar: covers the sclera
Palpebral: lines the inside
of the upper and lower lids

Lid retractors
Responsible for opening the
eyelids
levator palpebrae superioris
muscle
Lower lid retractor
inferior rectus, extends with
the inferior oblique and insert
into the lower border of the
tarsal plate

Extraocular Muscles
Rectus Muscles
superior rectus
inferior rectus
medial rectus
lateral rectus
Oblique Muscles
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique

Human Eye

Eyeball is a fluid filled spherical organ with a

diameter of 24 mm.

It consists of 3 concentric layers :

1.

The outer layer, or the fibrous coat

:-opaque sclera or the white of the eye ; the
transparent cornea.

2.

The middle layer, or vascular pigmented

coat (uveal coat) :- choroid , ciliary body &
iris

Interior of the eyeball is divided into :

3 spaces : Anterior & posterior chamber &
posterior cavity

The crystalline lens is a transparent structure

held in place by a circular lens suspensary
ligament (zonule).

The zonule is attached to the ciliary body.

Thepupilis a black aperture located in the

center of the iris of the eye that allows light to
enter the retina

A human eyeball is like a simple camera!

Sclera: outer walls, hard, like a light-tight box.

Cornea and crystalline lens (eye lens): the two

lens system.

Retina: at the back of eyeball, like the film.

Iris: like diaphragms or stop in a camera.

Pupil: camera aperture.

Eyelid: lens cover.

Functions of the eye

1.

Sclera : Avascular protective white

fibrous coat.
- It is covered by conjunctiva ( bulbar)

2.

Cornea

Avascular

,transparent

more convex curvature

- contributes most to refractive power

3. Iris : thin pigmented, circular diaphragm

- regulates the amount of light reaching the
retina
4. Ciliary body : formation of aqueous humour ,
role in
accommodation.
5.

Choroid : dark brown ,highly vascular

- nutrition to the outer retina ,prevent total

internal reflection

Maintenance of clear refractive

media of the eye
Structures forming refractive media of
eye from anterior to posterior are :
1. Tear film
2. Cornea
3. Aqueous humour
4. Crystalline lens
5. Vitreous humour

Tear Film:
Lipid layer produced by the
meibomian gland (oil)(hydrophobic)
Aqueous layer produced by the
Lacrimal gland (spreading, control
of infectious agents)
The mucous layer produced by
microscopic goblet cells in the conjunctiva
(coating)

Tear film and functions

Composition :

98% water ,1.5% NaCl, antibacterial

substances like lysozymes, lactoferrin,
betalysin

Functions :

1.

Keep cornea & conjunctiva moist

2.

Provides oxygen to cornea

3.

Washes away debris, foreign irritants

Eye Ball Structure:

Fibrous Tunic

Cornea and sclera

Form a spherical shell which makes up
the outer wall of the eyeball.

 The sclera is :
- principally collagenous,
- avascular (apart from some vessels
on its surface)
- relatively acellular.

The cornea and sclera merge at the

corneal edge (the limbus).

Cornea : Avascular ,transparent ,

more convex curvature
- contributes most to refractive power of
the eye
-It has 5 layers:
i.

Epithelium

ii.

Bowmans membrane

iii.

Stroma

iv.

Descemets membrane

v.

Endothelium

Chief functions of the cornea

1. Are protection against invasion
of microorganisms into the eye
2. The

transmission

and

focusing

(refraction) of light.
3. Screening
ultraviolet
sunlight

out
(UV)

damaging
wavelength

in

Epithelium
A thin, (5-6) layers made up of Stratified
Squamous epithelial cells
1. that keeps the stroma dehydrated and
2. to provide nutrients and oxygen to the
cornea
3.

resisting the free flow of fluids from the

tears

4. acts as a barrier to protect the cornea, and

thus

Epithelium
Extremely sensitive to pain
Can regenerate itself if damaged from
disorders such as:
1. Recurrent corneal erosion: characterized
by the failure of thecornea's outermost
layer ofepithelial cells to attach to the
underlyingbasement membrane
2. Epithelial
basement
membrane
dystrophy: the epithelium's basement
membrane develops abnormally, causing the
epithelial cells to not properly adhere to it.
3. Diabetes mellitus: poor adhesion between
epithelial cells
and their basement

Bowmans membrane
smooth, acellular, non-regenerating
layer,
Is transparent,
composed of collagen,
cannot regenerate after damage and
form scars as it heals which can lead
to vision loss

Stroma
Contributes to 90% of total corneal thickness
Is composed primarily of water (78%) ,
collagen (16%),
keratocytes and
Ground substance (glycosaminoglycan)
Giving the cornea its strength, elasticity and
form
Fairly dehydrated which contributes greatly
to the light-conducting transparency.

Descemets membrane
a

thin

but

strong

homogeneous

elastic membrane
Is a protective barrier under the Stroma
Interiorly composed of collagen
made by the endothelial cells that lie
below
Can regenerate after injury

Endothelium
Single layer of flattened polygonal cells
Is responsible for regulating fluid and
solute transport between the anterior
chamber and the stroma
The

endothelial

dependent

pump

mechanism

is

an

resulting

energyin

ion

transported from the stroma to the aqueous

humor,
creating an osmotic gradient drawing water
out of the stroma

Endothelium
Cells dont regenerate,
if they are destroyed, a corneal
transplant is the only therapy.

Factors responsible for corneal

transparency
1.

Anatomical : Avascularity , Absence of

pigment
Demyelinated nerve supply
Regular arrangement ,
non-keratinization of C.E
Lattice theory of Maurice
paucity of cells in stroma

2. Relative dehydration of stroma

Eye Ball Structure:

Vascular Tunic

Choroid:
Thin brown tissue
Highly vascularized
Provides

nutrients

and

oxygen to the retina

It is opaque making sure
no light is scattered from
the sclera to the retina.

Ciliary Body
A

thick

tissue

inside the eye

composed

of

ciliary
processes
muscles
Highly
vascularized

and

Ciliary Processes:
Secretes the aqueous humour in the
posterior chamber and from it to the
anterior chamber
The fluid nourishes and oxygenates the
cornea and lens and
then drains into the sclera via Schlemm
canal

Aqueous Flow

Ciliary Muscles:

The set of muscles (meridional, oblique,

sphincteric)
that affect the shape of the lens during
accommodation.

Iris:
Colored portion of the eye positioned
between the cornea and the lens
Smooth muscles : 1. The Sphincter
papillae
2. The
Dilatator papillae

Interior Of The Eyeball:

Physiology of crystalline
lens

Avascular , highly elastic , Biconvex

,transparent

Diameter 9-10mm & Thickness 3.5mm -5mm

Has following layers

1.

Capsule(tough,

transparent,

semipermeable)
2.

Anterior epithelium

3.

Lens fibers

..

Nucleus

..

Cortex

elastic,

Lens fibers are rich with proteins

known as crystallins
Responsible for transparency and
refractive properties and elasticity

Structure of the crystalline lens

Chemical composition of the lens

vs aqueous humour

Factors affecting lens

transparency
1.

Avascularity

2.

Semipermeable character of lens capsule

3.

Tightly-packed nature of lens cells,

4.

The arrangement of lens proteins

5.

Same index of refraction in all parts of the

lens

6.

Pump mechanism of lens fiber membranes

7.

Auto-oxidation and high concentration of

reduced glutathione in the lens

PATHOGENESIS OF
CATARACT

Any opacity in the lens or its capsule is

called cataract.

3 basic mechanisms are :

1.

Damage to lens capsule

2.

Increase in lens hydration

3.

Change in the lens fiber protein synthesis

Types of cataract
1.

Cortical
senile
cataract :
Mechanism of
loss of
transparency
total proteins,
A.A & K+ ions
with
in Na+ &
marked
hydration of
lens followed by

With

(senility)
active
pump
mechanism
Reversal of
Na+/K+
ratio
Hydration
of fibers

age

oxidative
reactions
A. A
level

synthesis
of proteins

Denaturation
of lens proteins
Opacification of cortical lens
fibers

2. Nuclear senile cataract

Usual degenerative change of agerelated nuclear sclerosis

Associated with dehydration &

Compaction of the nucleus

Accompanied by in water insoluble

proteins.

Resulting in hard cataract

Anterior cavity
Anterior Chamber located between the
cornea and the iris
Posterior chamber located between the
lens and the iris
Filled with aqueous humor produced by
ciliary processes

Aqueous humor

It is the clear protein free watery fluid

between the cornea and the lens.

Formed

from

plasma

by

diffusion,

ultrafiltration & secretion.

Vol. in ant. chamber is 0.25 ml & in post.

Chamber is 0.06ml

Maintains aqueous pressure about 10-21

mm Hg.

Chemical composition of the lens

vs aqueous humour

Mmoles/kg

Aqueous Flow

 Angle
of
anterior
chamber.
Formed by root of iris,
anterior-most part of
ciliary body, trabecular
meshwork
and
Schwalbes line

Increased
intraocular
pressure leads to
Glaucoma

Functions?

Provides nourishment to the eye lens and cornea.

Cannot use the blood vessels:

Will block the light.

Easy for surgical transplant.

Hold the shape of the eyeball and keep the vitreous

humor pressurized.

Physiology of Vitreous
humor

The Vitreous Humor (2/3 of eye volume)

is the

transparent avascular tissue of

gelatinous consistency fluid between the lens

and the retina.

The space that it fills is called the vitreous

body.

Composed of 99% water ,loose collagen fibrils ,

hyaluronic acid and vitrein

Eye Ball Structure:

Nervous Tunic

Retina

Thin,
semitransparent,
multilayered sheet of
neural tissue

Lines

the

inner

aspect of the posterior

two thirds of the globe
Terminates

anteriorly

at the ora serrata

Posterior Pole

Layers of the Retina

1. Retinal pigment epithelium

2.
Photoreceptor layer (rods and
cones)
3. External limiting membrane
4. Outer nuclear layer
5. Outer plexiform layer
6. Inner nuclear layer
7. Inner plexiform layer
8. Ganglion cell layer
9. Nerve fiber layer
10. Internal limiting membrane

10 Retina layers & Cells

Physiology Of The
Image Formation

Focusing / Image forming

mechanism

The cornea and eye lens form a compound

lens system, producing a real inverted
image on the retina.

From air to cornea (n=1.37): large bending,

the main focusing.

From cornea to eye lens (n=1.42), less

focusing power.

The eye has a limited depth of field.

We cannot see things close and far at the
same time.

Optics of Eye.

Focusing system of eye with

refracting structures. (Refractive
Indices)

Cornea.(1.37)
Aqueous humour.(1.33)
Crystalline lens. (1.42)
Vitreous humour. (1.33)
These constitute a homocentric
system of lenses

So total Diopteric power of eye

+60D

+44D by cornea

Cardinal points of the eye

Listing and Gauss, while studying refraction

by lens combinations, concluded that for a
homocentric lenses system, there Exist 3
pairs :

1.

2 principal foci

2.

2 principal points

3.

2 nodal points

all situated on the principal axis of the system.

When analyzed optically according to Gauss'

concept can be resolved into six cardinal

Cardinal points of eye.

By Listing & Gauss
Schematic Eye.

By Listing
Reduced Eye

For homocentric lens system of eye there are 3 cardinal

points

Principal foci (2)

Principal points (2)
Nodal points (2)

Simplified data by choosing single principal point & single

nodal point.

Schematic Eye
Conceptualizing the optical properties of

human eye
in which the curvatures and indices of

refraction of the refracting elements and

their intervening distances are listed.
Developed

by

Gullstrand,

professor of

ophthalmology in Sweden. Nobel Prize 1911

Schematic eye & reduced eye.

Schematic eye / Reduced eye

Schematic eye

Listing's reduced eye.

Reduced schematic
eye
Schematic eye can be simplified even further

We can treat eye as it was a single

refracting element
Ideal spherical surface separating two media

of refractive indices 1 and 1.33

Known as reduced schematic eye
Nodal point
Cornea and lens

Axes and visual angles of the eye

Axes of the eye
Optical axis
Visual axis
Fixation axis

Visual angles
Angle alpha (ONA)
Angle gamma (OCA)
Angle kappa (OPA, between optical axis and pupillary line OP)

Accomodation
Emmetropia (optically normal eye) can be
defined as a
state of refraction, where in the parallel rays of
light coming from infinity are focused at the
sensitive layer of retina with the accommodation
Our eyes have been provided with a unique
being at rest.
mechanism by which we can even focus the

diverging rays coming from a near object

on the retina in a bid to see clearly.

Accommodation

It is a process by which one can focus the

objects at different distances to have a clear
vision.

Rather, it is done by changing the focal length of

the eyelens.

Ciliary muscles help to change the shape of the

lens: accommodation. (The Relaxation theory)

Muscles relax, long focal length, see objects far

way;

Muscles tense, short focal length see

objects close.

Normal eyes can see 25cm to infinity, however, if

The Relaxation theory.

Thomas Young &

Helmholtz (1885)

At rest lens
compressed in
capsule by tension
of zonules d/t
relaxation of fibres
of ciliary muscle.

The Relaxation theory.

Ciliary muscles contract

Ciliary ring shortens.

Choroid move forwards.

Zonules relaxed.

Lens capsule relaxed.

Lens become more spherical

Increases Diopteric power of lens

Ocular changes in accomodation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Slackening of the zonules

Changes in the curvature of lens surface
Anterior pole
Axial thickness
Changes in the tension of lens capsule
Lens sinks down
Changes within the lens substance
Pupillary constriction & convergence of eyes
Choroid
Ora serrata

Range of accommodation

Near point

Far point
Amplitude of

Accommodation

Near point / Punctum proximum (P)

nearest point at which objects can be
seen clearly.

Far point / Punctum remotum (R)

distant point at which objects can be seen
clearly.

Range of accommodation difference

between far point & near point.

Amplitude

of

accommodation

ANOMALIES OF ACCOMMODATION
I.

Presbyopia

physiological

condition

insufficiency

of
of

accommodation leading to a progressive

fall in near vision
.
i.
ii.

Causes :
Insufficiency of accommodation
Paralysis of accommodation
(cycloplegia)

iii.

Spasm of accommodation.

Optical aberration of the

eye

The eye, is by no means optically perfect.

The lapses from perfection are called
aberrations

These are :

1.

Diffraction of light :

A bending of light caused by the edge

of an aperture or the rim of a lens

Actual pattern of a diffracted image

point is a series of concentric bright
and dark rings

'Airy disc

2.

Spherical
aberrations :

It occur owing to the fact

that
spherical
lens
refracts peripheral rays
more
strongly
than
paraxial rays.

3. Chromatic
aberrations
It result owing to the fact
that
the
index
of
refraction
of
any
transparent
medium
varies
with
the
wavelength of incident

Chromatic aberrations

Errors of Refraction

Emmetropia (optically normal

eye)

Ametropia

1.

Hypermetropia

2.

Myopia

3.

Astigmatism

4.

Presbyopia

Hypermetropia (hyperopia) or
long-sightedness

Refractive state of the eye wherein parallel

rays of light coming from infinity are
focused

behind

the

retina

accommodation being at rest.

Mechanism :

1.

Axial

2.

Curvatural

3.

Index

4.

Positional

5.

Absence of lens( aphakia)

with

Characteristic features
1.

Far-sightedness

2.

Near point goes away

3.

Asthenopic symptoms : mild headache ,

eyeache
Feeling of tiredness ,

discomfort in reading
4.

Accommodative convergent squint

Myopia or shortsightedness

Refractive error in which parallel rays of

light coming from infinity are focused in
front of the retina when accommodation
is at rest.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mechansims :
Axial
Curvatural
Positional
Index
Due to excessive accommodation

Characteristic features
1.

Short sightedness

2.

Far point is a finite point

3.

Asthenopic symptoms

4.

Half shutting of the eyes

Optical correction : concave lenses

Astigmatism

Refractive

error

wherein

the

refraction

varies in the different meridia.

Consequently, the rays of light entering in

the eye cannot converge to a point
focus but form focal lines.

Two types :
1.
.

2.
.

REGULAR ASTIGMATISM
when the refractive power changes uniformly
from one meridian to another
IRREGULAR ASTIGMATISM
Refractive power changes irregularly from
one meridia to other.

Characteristic features
1.

Defective vision

2.

Blurring of objects

3.

Depending upon the type and degree of

astigmatism,

objects

may

proportionately elongated;
4.

Asthenopic symptoms

appear

Optical correction : sphero-cylindrical lenses

Physiology of vision

Main mechanisms :

1.

Initiation

of

vision

( Phototransduction -photoreceptors)
2.

Processing

&

transmission

of

visual sensation ( image processing

cells of Retina & Visual Pathway )
3.

Visual perceptions ( Visual Cortex &

Association areas)

Retina Structure ( Thin transparent

membrane)

Optic disc , Macula lutea (yellow spot) , fovea

centralis

Light sensitive layer is made of photo-receptors:

rods (120 millions) and cones (7 millions) which
absorb the light.

Plexiform Layer: nerve cells that process the

signals generated by rods and cones and relay
them to the optical nerve.

Choroid : carries major blood vessels to nourish

the retina and absorb the light so that it will

Cells present in retina

10 Retina layers & Cells

Rods and Cones

Covers an area of 5 cm2.

Cones: slow, fine grain, like color film

pigment: Iodopsin

for more precise vision, high visual

acuity

need strong light.

Help to see colors.
Highly concentrated in the fovea at
the center of the macula lutea

Rods: fast, coarse grain, like black & white film

for peripheral and night vision.

pigment: rhodopsin

Sensitive to dim light.

Mostly distributed away from fovea.

dense at the peripheral of the retina.

responsible for identification of shapes

and movement

the discrimination between black and

white

Sensitivity

Cones:

Need

high

level

of

light

(photopic

condition, day)

High density, high resolution.

Rods:

Low level of light (scotopic condition, at

night)

Adaptation: Changing of retina sensitivity.

The existence of these two kinds of input,
each

working

maximally

under

different

Structure of Photoreceptor

It is divided into an
outer segment & an
inner segment that
includes
a
nuclear
region, and a synaptic
terminal zone
The outer segments are
comprised of saccules
or membranous disks
(contains pigments).
The inner segments
are rich in mitochondria;
This
region
synthesizes
the
photosensitive

PHOTORECEPTOR MECHANISM

PHOTOTRANSDUCTION

Light
falling
upon
the
retina
causes
photochemical changes which in turn trigger a
cascade of biochemical reactions that result in
generation of electrical changes.

Photochemical changes

1.

Rhodopsin bleaching

2.

Rhodopsin regeneration

Visual cycle :

Equilibrium between the photodecomposition and

regeneration of visual pigments is referred to as
visual cycle

Visual cycle

Rhodopsi
n
regenerti
on

Rhodopsi
n
bleachin
g

Biochemical reactions

Biochemical

Depicted is an outer
reactions membrane disk in a
rod.

1. Incident photon (h) is absorbed and activates a

rhodopsin by conformational change in the disk
membrane to R*.

2. R* makes repeated contacts with transducin

molecules, catalyzing its activation to G* by the
release of bound GDP in exchange for cytoplasmic
GTP, which expels its and subunits.
3. G* binds inhibitory subunits of the
phosphodiesterase (PDE) activating its and
subunits.
4. Activated PDE hydrolyzes cGMP.
Reduced levels of cytosolic cGMP cause cyclic
nucleotide gated channels to close preventing

PHOTORECEPTOR POTENTIALS

Photoreceptors and the electrical responses

of most of the other neural elements in the
retina are local, graded potentials,

It is only in the ganglion cells that all-ornone action potentials transmitted.

Responses of the rods, cones, and horizontal

cells are hyperpolarizing.

Cone receptor potential has a sharp onset

and off set.

Rod receptor potential has a sharp onset

and slow off set.

IONIC BASIS OF
PHOTORECEPTOR
POTENTIALS

Na + channels in the
outer segments of the
rods and cones are open
in the dark, so current
flows from the inner to
the outer segment

Current also flows to the

synaptic ending of the
photoreceptor.

The Na , K ATPase in the

inner segment maintains
ionic equilibrium.

Effect of light on
current flow in
visual receptors

Release

of

synaptic

transmitter

(glutamate) is steady in the dark

When light strikes the outer segment, the

reactions that are initiated close some of the
Na

channels,

and

the

result

is

hyperpolarizing receptor potential.

The

hyperpolarization

reduces

the

release of glutamate, and this generates a

signal in the bipolar cells that ultimately
leads to action potentials in ganglion cells.

The action potentials are transmitted to the

Resulting decrease in Ca
& Na concentration
Activates
guanylyl
cyclase, which generates
more cGMP.
It also inhibits the lightactivated
phosphodiesterase.
Both
actions
speed
recovery, restoring the Na
+ channels to
their open position.

Signal Processing

Trace the signal through the retina:

The retina is a seven-layered structure
involved in signal transduction.
Light enters from the GCL side first, and
must penetrate all cell types before
reaching the rods and cones.
The outer segments of the rods and cones
transduce the light and send the signal
through the cell bodies of the ONL and out
to
their
axons.

In the OPL photoreceptor axons contact

the

dendrites

horizontal

of

cells.

interneurons

bipolar
Horizontal

which

aid

cells

and

cells
in

are

signal

processing

The bipolar cells in the INL process input

from photoreceptors and horizontal cells,
and transmit the signal to their axons.

In the IPL, bipolar axons contact ganglion cell

dendrites and amacrine cells, another class of
interneurons.

The ganglion cells of the GCL send their axons

through the NFL to the optic disk to make up the optic
nerve. They travel all the way to the lateral
geniculate nucleus.

Fovea

The fovea defines the center of the retina,

and is the region of highest visual acuity.

The fovea is directed towards whatever

object you wish to study most closely - this
sentence, at the moment.

In the fovea there are almost exclusively

cones, and they are at their highest density.

Processing Time

Latency: it takes a bit time for the

cells in retina to respond to a flash
of light.
Persistence of response: the
response does not stop at the
instant the flash stops.

1/25 second at low intensity, 1/50

second at high intensity.
The persistence allows as to see
moving things clearly.

Phenomenon of processing of
visual

impulse

is

very

complicated.

It includes :

1.

Concept of receptive field

2.

Concept of serial processing of image

3.

Concept of parallel processing pathway

Visual Pathway

The

magnocellular

pathway, from layers 1

and 2, carries signals for
detection

of

movement, depth, and

flicker.
The

parvocellular

pathway, from layers 3

6,

carries

color

signals

vision,

for

texture,

shape, and fine detail

Visual Field
Defects

Visual Field Defects

Visual Perception

It is a complex integration of light sense, form sense,

sense of contrast and colour sense.

1. The light sense

It is awareness of the light.

The minimum brightness required to evoke a

sensation of light is called the light minimum.

Visual adaptation

Eye is capable of functioning normally over an exceedingly

wide range of illumination by a highly complex
phenomenon termed as the Visual adaptation.

Visual adaptation primarily involves :

1.

Dark adaptation (adjustment in dim illumination)

2.

Light adaptation (adjustment to bright illumination).

Dark adaptation

It is the ability of the eye to adapt itself to decreasing

illumination.
This decline in visual threshold is known as dark
adaptation.

The time taken to see in dim illumination is called dark

adaptation time.

Mechanisms :

1.

Visual Pigment mechanism

2.

Change in pupillary size

3.

Neural mechanisms

Dark adaptation curve

Delayed dark adaptation occurs in diseases of rods

e.g., retinitis pigmentosa and vitamin A deficiency( Nyctalopia).

Light adaptation

When one passes suddenly from a dim to a brightly lighted

environment,

the

light

seems

intensely

and

even

uncomfortably bright until

The eyes adapt to the increased illumination and the

visual threshold rises.

The process by means of which retina adapts itself to bright

light is called light adaptation.

Mechanisms: same as dark adaptation

Form Sense

It is the ability to discriminate between the shapes of

the objects.

Cones play a major role in this faculty.

Form sense is most acute at the fovea

Visual acuity recorded by Snellen's test chart is a

measure of the form sense.

Factors affecting Visual acuity

1.

Optical factors

2.

Retinal factors

3.

Stimulus Factors :

..

Size & distance of object

..

Colour of object

..

Illuminitation , brightness of object

..

Contrast bw object & background

..

length of time for exposure of object

Critical flicker fusion frequency

- Intermittent light stimuli are presented on eye ,a
sensation of flicker is evoked
3. Sense of contrast

It is the ability of the eye to perceive slight changes

in the luminance between regions which are not
separated by definite borders.

Colour sense

It is the ability of the eye to discriminate between

different

colours

excited

by

light

of

different

wavelengths.

Colour vision is a function of the cones and thus better

appreciated in photopic vision.

In dim light (scotopic vision), all colours are seen grey

and this phenomenon is called Purkinje shift.

Theory for colour vision

Trichromatic

theory.

Called

Young-Helmholtz

theory.

It postulates the existence of 3 kinds of cones,

each containing a different photopigment which is
maximally sensitive to one of the 3 primary
colours viz. red, green and blue.

The sensation of any given colour is determined by

the relative frequency of the impulse from each of
the three cone systems.

In other words, a given colour consists of

Applied

Trichomate

Colour blindness

- Congenital : dyschromatopsia

Retinal Pigment Epithelium:

Sheet of melanin-containing epithelial cells lying
between the choroid and the neural portion
Which form a single layer extending from the periphery
of the optic disc to the Ora Serrata
epithelial cells that assist in the turnover of rods and
cones and prevent the scattering of light within the
eyeball due to the presence of melanin also works as a
barrier between the vascular system of the choroid and
the retina.

The neural portion of the retina:

composed of the 9 remaining layers that would convert
light into electrical impulses to be transmitted to the
thalamus
The neural portion is soft, translucent and purple (due
to the presence of Rhodopsin) which becomes opaque
and bleached when exposed to light.
Neurons in the retina are classified into different
categories

The Ganglion cell layer:

Transmits the visual packets received from the photoreceptors
to the brain for further processing
Highly concentrated in the Macula, less in the fovea
Retinal ganglion cells vary significantly in terms of their size,
connections, and responses to visual stimulation but they all
share the defining property of having a longaxonthat
extends into the brain. These axons form theoptic nerve

The bipolar cell layer:

Radially oriented neurons. Signal couriers between the
photoreceptors that react to light stimuli and the
ganglion cells, there are two types of bipolar cells Cone
bipolar and rod bipolar, receiving information from their
respective photoreceptors.

Photoreceptor layer:
Comprised of rod and cons neurons that converts light
to receptor potential.

Photoreceptor layer:
The photoreceptors have photopigments that when hit
by light goes thru structural change and triggers the
initiation of a receptor potential across the nerves.
The cone cells have three photopigments each one
interacts at different wavelength (red, green and blue),
The rod cells they only have Rhodopsin which are
essential for vision during dimmed light.

Receptor potential initiation in a rod

cell
Light isomerizes retinal, which activates Rhodopsin
that in turn activates a G protein called transducin
which in turn activates the enzyme phosphodiesterase
(PDE), this enzyme then detaches cyclic guanosine
monophosphate (cGMP) from Na+ channels in the
plasma membrane by hydrolyzing cGMP to GMP. The
Na+ channels close when cGMP detaches. The
membranes permeability to Na+ decreases and the rod
hyperpolarizes due to the added negativity in neurons.
This hyperpolarization decreases the release of the
neurotransmitter glutamate into the synaptic cleft
between rod and the subsequent bipolar.

ON-OFF mechanism
At dark, Neurotransmitter glutamate is maximally
released and the rods are depolarized consequently the
ON bipolar gets hyperpolarized and the OFF bipolar
depolarized.
In light, Neurotransmitter glutamate is minimal and the
rods are hyperpolarized consequently the ON bipolar
gets depolarized and the OFF bipolar hyperpolarized.
Depolarizing bipolar cells results in the release of
neurotransmitters whereas hyperpolarization stops this
release.

Horizontal cells:
Inhibitory interneurons,
that help integrate and
regulate the input from
multiple photoreceptor
cells and are responsible
for regulating vision under
both bright and dim light.

Amacrine cells:
Interneurons in the retina
They are responsible for 70% of input to retinal
ganglion cells. The remaining 30% are regulated by the
amacrine cells but are handled by the bipolar cells.

Macula
Center of the posterior retina
responsible for fine central vision
has yellow pigment (xantophyll)
histologically empty space tends to the
accumulation of extracellular material
that cause thickening

Physiology Of The Eye:

Physiology of Vision

Alignment of the Eyes:

Binocular vision: The two eyes field of vision overlap
and the image coincide creating a single impression
This is done by synced eye movements where both
eyes move simultaneously to maintain the overlap of
vision.

Fixation
Involves looking stably straight ahead toward an object
in space.

Fusion:
Is the power exerted by
the eyes to keep the position
of the eyes aligned so that
the fovea can project
the same point in space.

Eye Movement:
Controlled by extraocular
muscles
To the left: levoversion
To the right: dextroversion
Upwards: sursumversion
Downwards: deorsumversion