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Chapter 6

Dynamic analysis
of switching converters

Overview
Continuous-Time Linear Models

Switching converter analysis using classical control


techniques
Averaged switching converter models
Review of negative feedback using classical-control
techniques
Feedback compensation
State-space representation of switching converters
Input EMI filters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

Overview
Discrete-time models

Continuous-time and discrete-time domains

Continuous-time state-space model

Discrete-time model of the switching


converter

Design of a discrete control system with


complete state feedback

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

Dynamic analysis

Dynamic or small-signal analysis of the switching


converter enables designers to predict the dynamic
performance of the switching converter to reduce
prototyping cost and design cycle time

Dynamic analysis can be either numerical or


analytical

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

Dynamic analysis

Switching converters are non-linear time-variant circuits

Nevertheless, it is possible to derive a continuous timeinvariant linear model to represent a switching converter

Continuous-time models are easier to handle, but not


very accurate

Since a switching converter is a sampled system, a


discrete model gives a higher level of accuracy

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

Linear model of a switching


converter
Vo

ZL
k Vref
Zo Z L

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

PWM modulator model


Voltage-mode control
Sensitivity of the duty cycle with respect to vref

Vref
Vp

D $
1
d$
v ref v$ref
Vref
Vp

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

PWM modulator model


Current- mode control
diL VL I P I1

dt
L
D

( I P I1 ) L
VL

d ^ d ^ d ^
d
iL
vc
Ip
iL
vc
I p
^

Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation in the inductor current


r
^

Vd Vc
L
^

i L r ( d T )
^
L
d
iL
(Vd Vc ) T
^

d
L

(Vd Vc ) T
$
iL

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

PWM modulator model


Current- mode control
Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation in the output voltage
r1 (Vd Vc ) L

r1 I DT
^

r ' [Vd (Vc v c )] L

r ' I ( D d ) T

(Vd Vc ) L
r1
I DT

r ' I ( D d^ ) T [V (V v^ )] L
c
d
c
^

^
v
c

d D
^
V V v
c
c
d
^
^
D
d$ D
d vc

$
V

V
V

v
c
c
d
d

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

PWM modulator model


Current- mode control
Variation of the duty cycle due to a perturbation on the peak current
^

Ip
dT
r
^

Vd Vc
L
^

Ip L
d
T Vd Vc
^

d
^

Ip

1 L
T Vd Vc

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

10

Averaged switching converter


models
Averaged-switch model for voltage-mode control
Three-terminal averaged-switch model

v1

Vap $
d
D

i1 I c d$

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

11

Averaged switching converter


models
Examples of switching converters with an averaged switch

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

12

Averaged switching converter


models
Small-signal averaged-switch model for the discontinuous mode
gi

Ia
,
Vac

Ia $
d,
D
I
I 2 2 p v$ac ,
Vac
I1 2

Ip $
I3 2 d ,
D
Ip
go
Vcp

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

13

Averaged switching converter


models
Small-signal model for current-mode control
s
s2
H e (s) 1
2
n Qz n
Qz

Ts

kf

DTs Ri
D
1 ,
L
2

(1 D) 2 Ts Ri
kr
,
2L
and
1
Fm
.
( S n Sc )Ts

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

14

Output filter model


Output filter of a switching converter
R o //
Vo (s) =

1
sC o

1
sL o + R o //
sC o

V s(s) .

V o(s)
C o Lo
=
.
s
1
V s(s) s 2 +
+
C o R o L oC o

o
H(s) = 2
,
2
+
2

s
+
s
o o
2

Power switchin

1
2R C o
Lo

o=

Dynamic analysis of s

1
L oC o

15

Output filter model


Magnitude response of the output filter for several values of the
output resistance Ro

20 log G ( ) 10 log 1

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

16

Output filter model


Phase response of the output filter for several values of the output
resistance Ro

( ) tan 1


2
o
2

1
o

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

17

Output filter model


Output filter with a capacitor Resr
s+

H(s) =

f ESR

R o R esr
C o R esr
.
+
C
Ro
o R o R esr
L o( R o + R esr ) s 2 + L o
s+
L oC o( R o + R esr )
L oC o( R o + R esr )
1
2 R e sr Co

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

18

Output filter model


20 log G ( ) 10 log(1 ) 10 log 1


2 2

Magnitude response of
an output filter with a
capacitor having a Resr
for several values of
the output resistance Ro

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

19

Output filter model


Phase response of an output filter with a capacitor having a Resr
for several values of the output resistance Ro

f
2

f
fo
1
-1
=
tan
LC
tan
.
2

f esr
1 f

f o

Ro
o
LoCo ( Ro R e sr )
Lo

Co R e sr o
Ro
2

Co R e sr

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

20

Example 6.4

The boost converter shown in Figure 2.10 has the


following parameters: Vin = 10 V, Vo = 20 V, fs = 1
kHz, L = 10 mH, C = 100 F and RL = 20 . The
reference voltage is 5 V. The converter operates in
the continuous-conduction mode under the voltagemode. Using (a) the averaged-switch model,
calculate the output-to-control transfer function, and
(b) Matlab to draw the Bode plot of the transfer
function found in (a) .

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

21

Example 6.4
(a)
The nominal duty cycle can be calculated as

V0
V
V
1

1 D d D 1 d
Vd 1 D
V0
V0

for the given input and output voltages, we have D=0.5.

Small-signal model of the boost converter


I C (1 D)I 0 (1 D)

V0
R0

Vap V0

v0

Vap D - 1 sLI C

1 D 2 s 2

1 D
LC

LC
L

1
1 D 2 R 1 D 2

Power switchin

L
1
C 2R 1 D

Dynamic analysis of s

22

Example 6.4

vc VP
V
VP VC
VP ref 10V

D
1
D

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

23

Example 6.4
Bode plot of the small-signal transfer function of the boost converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

24

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

25

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

26

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

27

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

28

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

29

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

30

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

31

Small-signal models of switching


converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

32

Review of negative feedback


Block diagram representation for a closed-loop system

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

33

Review of negative feedback


Closed-loop

gain

TL A

TL>>1

Vo
1

Vref

Loop
For

gain

Vo
A

Vref 1 A

Stability

analysis

Power switchin

A 1

A 1 or

o
phase( ) phase( A) 180

Dynamic analysis of s

34

Relative stability
Definitions of gain and phase margins

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

35

Relative stability
Loop gain of a system with three poles

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

36

Closed-loop switching
converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

37

Feedback network

Va ' Vo

R2
R1 R2

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

38

Error amplifier compensation


networks
PI Compensation network

1
1
+
R

sC 2
sC

1
H(s) =
.
1
1

+
R1 R 2 +

sC
sC 2

1
f p=

1
2 R 2C 2
f 1

f
z

-1
lead = tan

The total phase lag

Power switchin

f z=

1 + sR 2C 1
.
sR 1( C 1 + C 2 + sR 2C 1C 2 )

H(s) =

1
2 R 2C 1

f 1
.
lag = tan

f
p
-1

f 1
f 1
-1
+
.
tan

f z
f p

= 270 o - tan -1

Dynamic analysis of s

39

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Frequency response of the PI compensation network

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

40

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Phase response of the PI compensation network

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

41

Error amplifier compensation


networks
PID Compensation network
H(j ) =

f p1 =

f z1 =

(1+ j R 2C 1 )
(1+ j ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3 )
.
- 2 R 2C 1C 2 + j ( C 1 + C 2 ) R 1 + j R 1 R 3C 3
1

2 R 3C 3
1
2 R 2C 1

R2
K 1=
R1

f z2 =

p2

( C1 + C 2 )
2 R 2C 1C 2

1
2 ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3

R 2( R 1 + R 3 )
=
K2
R1R 3

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

42

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Magnitude response of the PID compensation network

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

43

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Magnitude response of the PID compensation network

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

44

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Phase response of the PID compensation network

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

45

Error amplifier compensation


networks
Asymptotic approximated magnitude response of the PID
compensation network
1
2 R 2C 1

1
2 ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3
f 1

f
zd

-1
zd = 2 tan

1
2 R 3C 3

R 2C 1 = ( R 1 + R 3 )C 3 .

( C1+ C 2 )
2 R 2C 1C 2

C 1C 2
R3
.
C3=
C1 + C 2
R2

f 1
.

pd = 2 tan

f
pd
-1

f 1
f 1
-1
= 270 - 2 tan
.
+ 2 tan

f
f
zd
pd
o

-1

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

46

Compensation in a buck converter


with output capacitor ESR
average output voltage: 5 V
input voltage: 12 V
load resistance RL = 5
Design the compensation
to shape the closed-loop
magnitude response of the
switching converter to
achieve a -20 dB/decade
roll-off rate at the unitygain crossover frequency
with a sufficient phase
margin for stability
Power switchin
Dynamic analysis of s

47

Compensation in a buck converter


with output capacitor ESR
R4
R3 + R4
20 [ log 10 ( 2.5 / 5) ] = - 6 dB
20 [ log 10 ( V s / V p ) ]

fo
=

Ro
LoCo ( Ro R e sr )

5
(100 x106 )(100 x106 )(5 0.5)
1.517 kHz
2

1
= 3.18 kHz
2 (0.5)100x10 -6

f1,

is chosen to be one-fifth of the switching


frequency

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

48

Compensation in a buck converter


with output capacitor ESR
Magnitude response of the buck converter
open-loop (ABCD)
closed-loop (JKLMNO)
error amplifier EFGH

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

49

Compensation in a buck converter


with output capacitor ESR

LC = tan

f
2
f
fo
o
-1
- tan
70.1 .
2
f
f esr
1
f o

o
o
o
ea = 315 70.1 = 244.9 .

5
5
-1
= 64.9o .

tan - tan

f z
f p
-1

Power switchin

1
" = 64.9o .
f

-1

-1
tan f" - tan

C1=

C2=

Dynamic analysis of s

1
2 R 2 f

= 774 pF
z

1
2 R 2 f

= 38 pF .
p

50

Compensation in a buck converter


with no output capacitor ESR
f 1
f 1
-1
2
= 270 o - 135 o = 135 o .

tan

f zd
f pd

2 tan -1

1
2 tan -1 f" - tan -1 " = 135 o .
f

C3=

1
2 f

pd

R3

= 0.16 F .

Power switchin

( R 1 + R 3 )C 3
=
= 0.13 F .
C1
R2
R3
C 1C 3
R 2 = 5.29 nF .
C2=
[ C1 - C 3 R3 ]
R2
phase(delay ) 360* t delay * f1

Dynamic analysis of s

51

Compensation in a buck converter


with no output capacitor ESR
Magnitude response of the buck converter
open-loop ABC
closed-loop HIJKL
error amplifier DEFG

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

52

Linear model of a voltage


regulator including external
perturbances
v$o GVref v$ref GVDC v$DC Gio $
io
GVref

vo
vref

v$DC 0

$
io 0

v$o

v$ref

v$DC 0

$
io 0

audio susceptibility
GVDC

vo
vDC

v$ref 0

$
io 0

v$o

v$DC

v$ref 0

$
io 0

output impedance
$
Gio

Vo
I o

v$ref 0

v$DC 0

v$o

$
io

v ref 0

Zo
v$DC 0

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

53

Output impedance and stability


Z of

Output impedance

Z oo
1 A

1
1
1

Z of Z o Z L
1
1
Zo

Z

of Z L

1
1
Zo

Z

of Z L

A ? 1 Z of = Z oo
Z of = Z L Z of Z o

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

54

State-space representation of
switching converters
Review of Linear System Analysis
A simple second-order low-pass circuit

u1 L x1 x2

dx 1
dt

x1 =

x1 = C x 2 +

x2 =

dx 2
dt

x1 = -

x2
R

x2 u1
+
L L

x -x
x2 = 1 + 2 .
C RC

Power switchin

x= A x+ B u

x 1
x = A, =
x2
1
C

1
-
L

1
RC

Dynamic analysis of s

1
, u = [ u 1 ] , B = L .

0

55

State-space representation of
switching converters
Review of Linear System Analysis
A simple second-order low-pass circuit

1
1
(s +
)
X 1(s) = L
RC
U 1(s) ( s 2 + s + 1 )
RC LC

s X (s) = A X (s) + B U(s)


X (s) = (s I - A )-1 B U(s)

1
1
s
+
1

RC
L
L U(s)

1
s

X 1(s)

C
=
.

s
1
2
X 2(s)
+
s +
RC LC

Power switchin

1
X 2(s) =
LC
.
U 1(s) ( s 2 + s + 1 )
RC LC

Dynamic analysis of s

56

State-Space Averaging
approximates

the switching converter as a


continuous linear system

requires

that the effective output filter corner


frequency to be much smaller than the
switching frequency

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

57

State-Space Averaging
Procedures for state-space averaging

Step 1: Identify switched models over a switching cycle. Draw


the linear switched circuit model for each state of the switching
converter (e.g., currents through inductors and voltages across
capacitors).
Step 2: Identify state variables of the switching converter. Write
state equations for each switched circuit model using Kirchoff's
voltage and current laws.
Step 3: Perform state-space averaging using the duty cycle as a
weighting factor and combine state equations into a single
averaged state equation. The state-space averaged equation is

x = [ A1d + A2 (1- d)] x + [ B1 d + B 2 (1- d)] u .


Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

58

State-Space Averaging

Step 4: Perturb the averaged state equation to


yield steady-state (DC) and dynamic (AC)
terms and eliminate the product of any AC
terms.

Step 5: Draw the linearized equivalent circuit


model.

Step 6: Perform hybrid modeling using a DC


transformer, if desired.

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

59

State-Space Averaged Model for an


Ideal Buck Converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

60

State-Space Averaged Model for an


Ideal Buck Converter

u1 L x1 x2

x
1
=
x
1
2
C

0 = L x1+ x2

x
1
=
x
1
2
C

x1 = C x 2 +

x2
R

1
-
1
L x 1
+ L [ u1 ]

1
- x 2 0
RC

x1 = C x 2 +

1
-
L x 1

1 x 2
RC

Power switchin

x2
R

0
+
0 [ u1 ]

Dynamic analysis of s

61

State-Space Averaged Model for an


Ideal Buck Converter
0

A=

1
C

1
0

1
-

L
L
(1- d)
d+

1
1
1

-
C

RC
RC

B = L d +

0
0

d
L .
(1- d) =

0

Power switchin

A=

1
C

1
-
L
.
1
-
RC

x
1
=
x
1
2
C

Dynamic analysis of s

1
-
d
L x 1
+ L [ u1 ] .

1 x 2
0

RC

62

A nonlinear continuous equivalent


circuit of the ideal buck converter

x1 =

x2 =

x2 d
+ u1
L L

1
1
x1 x2 .
C
RC

u1d = L x1 + x2

x1 = C x 2 +

x2
.
R

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

63

A linear equivalent circuit of the


ideal buck converter
x1 = x10 + x$1 , x2 = x20 + x$2 ,
u1 = u10 + u$1 ,

d = D + d .

d x$1
1
1
x20 x$2
D d$ u10 u1
dt
L
L

d x$2 1
1

x10 x$1
x20 x$2
dt
C
RC

1
0 = (- x 20 + Du 10 )
L

1
1
x1 x20 D u10 x$2 D u$1 d$ u10
L
L

x2 =

1
1
x
x
( x 10 - 20 ) + ( x 1 - 2 ) .
C
R
C
R

Power switchin

1 1 $
dx
$ )
= ( x 2 Du$1 du
10
dt L
0=

1
x
( x 10 - 20 )
C
R

Dynamic analysis of s

x 20
=D .
u 10

x$2 = D u 1 + d u 10 - L dx 1 .
dt
x 10 =

x 20
.
R

64

A linear equivalent circuit of the


ideal buck converter
d x$2 1
x
= ( x 1 - 2 )
dt
C
R
d x$2 x 2
+
.
x 1 = C
dt
R

x2 = Du 1 + d u 10 - L x1

x20 + x$2 = - L x1 + D (u10 +u$1 ) + d u10 .

x20 + x$2
$
x10 + x1 = C x 2 +
R

x1 = C x 2 +

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

x2
.
R

65

A source-reflected linearized
equivalent circuit of the ideal buck
converter

d
x2 L
u1 + u10 = + 2 x1 D
D
D D

x 2 x2 D 2
D x1 D C
D D R
2

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

66

A linearized equivalent circuit of the


ideal buck converter using a DC
transformer

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

67

State-space averaged model for the


discontinuous-mode buck converter
A A1 d1 A2 d 2 A3 1 d1 d 2
B B1 d1 B 2 d 2 B 3 1 d1 d 2

x1 = 0

C x2 +

x2
=0 .
R

A3
0 - 1
RC

0
B3 = .
0

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

68

State-space averaged model for the


discontinuous-mode buck converter

A=

d1+ d 2
C

( d 1 + d 2 )
L

1
RC

d 1
B = L .

0
0 ( d 1 + d 2 )

x 1 d 1
x
L
1
=
+ L u 1


1
x
d1+ d 2
- x 2 0
2

C
RC

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

69

A nonlinear continuous equivalent


circuit for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter

x1 = -

( d1+ d 2 )
d1
x2 + u1
L
L

u1 d1 d1 d 2 x2

x2 =

( d1+ d 2 )
x2
.
x1 C
RC

x1 (0) x1 (T ) 0

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

70

A nonlinear continuous equivalent


circuit for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter
u1 d1 d1 d 2 x2

x2 =

( d1+ d 2 )
x2
.
x1 C
RC

x1 = ( u 1 - x 2 )

d1
2Lf s

Power switchin

( u 10 + u 1 )( D 1 + d 1 ) = ( D 1 + d 1 + D 2 + d 2 )( x 20 + x 2 ) ,
d x$2 ( D 1 + d 1 + D 2 + d 2 )
( x + x 2 )
=
( x 10 + x 1 ) - 20
,
dt
C
RC

x 10 + x 1 = ( u 10 + u 1 - x 20 - x 2 )

Dynamic analysis of s

( D 1 + d 1 )
.
2Lf s

71

A linearized equivalent circuit


for the discontinuous-mode
buck converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

72

State-Space Averaged Model for a


Buck Converter with a Capacitor
ESR

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

73

Switched models for the buck


converter with a Resr

u1 = L x1 x2 + R e sr C x 2

x
1
=

x
2

1
L( R esr + R) x 1
+ L [ u1 ] .
-1
x 2
0
C( R esr + R)

- R esrR
L( R esr + R)
R
C( R esr + R)

-R

x1 = C x 2 +

0 = L x1+ x2 + R esrC x 2 .

-R R e sr
L( R + R)
e sr

x1 =

x
2

x + C x2
x1 = C x 2 + 2 R esr
R

R
C( R e sr + R)

x2 + R esrC x 2
R

L( R e sr + R) x 1 0
+
[ u1 ] .
-1
x 2 0
C( R e sr + R)
-R

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

74

Switched models for the buck


converter with a Resr

A = A1 d A2 (1 d ) A1 A2 =

- R esrR
L( R esr + R)
R
C( R esr + R)

-R

L( R esr + R)
.
-1

C( R esr + R)

d
B = B1 d B2 (1 d ) = L .

0

x
1
=

x
2

- R esrR
L( R esr + R)
R
C( R esr + R)

Power switchin

-R

d
L( R esr + R) x 1
+ L [ u1 ]
-1
x 2
0
C( R esr + R)

Dynamic analysis of s

75

A nonlinear continuous
equivalent circuit for the buck
converter with a Resr

x1 =

- R esr R
R
d
x1 x2 + u1
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
R

x2 =

C( R esr + R)

d u 1 = L x1+

x1 -

x2
C( R esr + R)

R
R esrR
x1 +
x2
( R esr + R)
( R esr + R)

d u 1 = L x1 + y 2

( x 2 + R esrC x 2 )
.
x1 = C x2 +
R

Power switchin

y2 =

R x2
R esrR x 1 + R x 2 = (
R esr //R)x 1 +
( R esr + R) ( R esr + R)
( R esr + R)

Dynamic analysis of s

76

A linearized continuous
equivalent circuit for the buck
converter with a Resr
u 10 + u 1 )
d x$1 - R esrR( x 10 + x 1 ) R( x 20 + x 2 ) (D + d)(
=
+
dt
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
d x$2 R( x 10 + x 1 ) ( x 20 + x 2 )
=
.
dt
C( R esr + R) C( R esr + R)

The DC terms are


0=
0=

The AC terms are

- R esrR
R
Du 10
x 10 x 20 +
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L
R
C( R esr + R)

x 10 -

x 20
.
C( R esr + R)

Power switchin

d x$1
- R esrR
R
D u 1
=
x 1 x 2 +
dt
L( R esr + R)
L( R esr + R)
L

d u 10
+
L

d x$2
R
x 2
=
.
x 1 dt
C( R esr + R)
C( R esr + R)

Dynamic analysis of s

77

A linearized equivalent circuit


using DC transformer with a
turns-ratio of D

Du 1 + d u 10 = L x1+ ( R esr //R) x 1 +

C x2 =

R x2
= L x1+ y 2
( R esr + R)

R
1
x1
x2 .
R esr + R
R esr + R

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

78

State-Space Averaged Model for


an Ideal Boost Converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

79

State-Space Averaged Model


for an Ideal Boost Converter

u 1 = L x1

u 2 = C x2 +

1
0
0

x 1 L

x1 = 0
+
1

- x 2 0
x
2
RC

u 1 = L x1 + x 2

x2
R

0
u1
.

1 u 2
C

x1 + u 2 = C x 2 +

x2
R

1
0
1 o

L x 1 L u 1
x1 =
.
+


1
1
0
1
x
x
u

2
- 2
2
C

C
RC

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

80

State-Space Averaged Model for


an Ideal Boost Converter
1
0
0
0

A = A1 d A2 (1 d ) = 0
d
+

(1- d)
1

1
1
-

-
RC

RC
C

A=

1
L
B = B1 d B2 (1 d ) =
0

1
L
B=
0

x1 =
x
(1- d)
2
C

Dynamic analysis of s

(1- d)
C

0
1 0

L
(1- d)
d+

1
0
1

-(1- d)
1 0

x 1 L u 1
L
+

1 x 2 0 1 u 2

C
RC

Power switchin

-(1- d)
L
.
1
RC

.
1
C

-(1- d)x 2

L
x1 =

(1- d) x 1 x 2
x

2
C
RC

u1
L
+
.

u2
C

81

Nonlinear continuous
equivalent circuit of the ideal
boost converter

x1 =

-(1- d) x 2 1
+ u1
L
L

L
u1
=
x1 + x 2
(1- d) (1- d)

x2 =

(1- d)x 1 x 2 u 2
+
C
RC C

C
u2
x2
+ x1 =
x2 +
.
(1- d)
(1- d)
R(1- d)

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

82

Linearized equivalent circuit of


the ideal boost converter

d x$1 -(1- D - d)
1
=
( x 20 + x 2 ) + ( u 10 + u 1 )
dt
L
L

d x$2 (1- D - d)
1
1
=
( x 10 + x 1 ) ( x 20 + x 2 ) + u 2 ,
dt
C
RC
C
d x$1 -(1- D)
d
1
1 D
1
=
x20 u10
x 2 + x 20 + u
dt
L
L
L
L
L

d x$2 (1- D)
d
1
1
(1- D)
1
=
x 1
x 10 x 2 + u 2 +
x 10 x 20 .
dt
C
C
RC
C
C
RC

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

83

Linearized equivalent circuit of


the ideal boost converter
DC solutions
0= 0=

(1- D)
u 10
x 20 +
L
L

(1- D)
1
x 10 x 20.
C
RC

1
x 20
=
u 10 (1- D)

x 20
x 10 = R
(1- D)
x 10 =

u 10
,
2
R(1- D )

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

84

Linearized equivalent circuit


of the ideal boost converter
AC solutions
L

d x$1
= -(1- D) x 2 + d x 20 + u 1
dt

d x$2

C
= (1- D) x 1 - x 10d - x 2 + u 2 .
dt
R

small-signal averaged state-space equation

x$

(1 D)

Power switchin

(1 D)
x20
1
L $ L $
d L
x

1
x10

0
C
RC

u$1

u$2

Dynamic analysis of s

85

Linearized equivalent circuit of


the ideal boost converter

L
1
x 20d
x1 = - x 2 +
+
u1
(1- D)
(1- D) (1- D)
C
1
1
x 10 d
x2 = x1 x2 +
u2 .
(1- D)
(1- D) R(1- D)
(1- D)

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

86

Source-reflected linearized
equivalent circuit for the ideal
boost converter

L x1 = - x 2(1- D) + x 20d + u 1 .

C
x2 (1- D)
x 10d
u2
[
x
(1D)]
=
+
,
2
x
1
2
2
(1- D) R(1- D ) (1- D)
(1- D )

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

87

Load-reflected linearized
circuit for the ideal boost
converter

C x 2 = x 1(1- D) -

x2
- x 10d + u 2 .
R

L
u1
x 20d
x (1- D) = - x 2 +
+
.
2 1
(1- D) (1- D)
(1- D )

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

88

DC transformer equivalent
circuit for the ideal boost
converter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

89

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
Source-to-State Transfer Functions

x A0 x B 0 u E d$

s X (s) = A0 X (s) + B 0U(s) + Ed(s)

A0 = [ A1D + A2(1- D)]

(sI - A0 )X (s) = B 0 U(s) + E d(s)

B 0 = [ B 1D + B 2(1- D)]
E = ( A1 - A2 )x 0 + ( B 1 - B 2 )u 0 .

Power switchin

-1
-1
.
X (s) = (s I - A0 ) B 0U(s) + (s I - A0 ) E d(s)

Dynamic analysis of s

90

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
Source-to-State Transfer Functions
linearized control law
= T (s)X (s) + Q T (s)U(s)
d(s)
F
T

-1

X (s)= (sI - A0 ) ( B 0U(s)+ E[ F T(s)X (s)+ Q (s)U(s)])

X (s)
T
= [ sI - A0 - E F T (s) ] -1( B 0 + E Q (s))
U(s)

X (s) = [ sI - A0 - E F T (s) ] -1[ B 0 + E Q (s)]U(s) .

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

91

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
BUCK CONVERTER
1
0

x 1 D
x
L
1

=
+ L [ u 1 ] +

x
1 - 1 x 2 0
2

RC
C

A0 =

1
C

d(s) =

D

B 0 = L
0

u 10
E = L .

0

V e(s) [1 + H(s)]V R(s) - H(s) X 2(s)


=
VP
VP

F (s) = 0

1
-
L

1
RC

u 10
L d .

Power switchin

-H(s)

VP

= - H(s) X 2(s) .
d(s)
VP

Q (s) = 0 0 .
T

Dynamic analysis of s

92

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
BUCK CONVERTER

X 1(s)

=
(s)
X

1
C

1 u 10H(s)
+
L
LV P
1
s+
RC

-1

D
L [ U 1(s)]

0

1
u 10H(s) + 1 )
s
+
-(
D

RC
L
LV
P

L [ U 1(s)]
1
s 0


X 1(s)
C
.

=
s
1
H(s)
(s)
u
10
2
X
2

+
+
s +
RC LC LCV P

D
1
[s +
]
X 1(s)
L
RC
=
s
1 u 10H(s)
(s)
2
U1
+
+
S +
RC LC LCV P

Power switchin

D
X 2(s) =
LC
.
s
1
H(s)
u
(s)
10
2
U1
+
+
S +
RC LC LCV P

Dynamic analysis of s

93

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
BOOST CONVERTER
0

x1 =
x
(1- D)
2
C

-(1- D)
1 0

x 20
L
L x 1 L u 1
d .
+

+
1 x 2 0 1 u 2
- x 10

C
RC

(1- D) x 20H(s)
+

L
LV P
-(1- D)
1
x H(s)
(s +
) - 10
C
RC
CV P

X 1(s)

=
(s)

X2

Power switchin

-1

1
L

1
C

A0 =

(1- D)
C

U 1 (s)
.

U 2 (s)

-(1- D)
L

1
RC

X 1(s)

=
(s)

X2

1
C

(1- D) x 20H(s)
+

L
LV P
-(1- D)
1
x H(s)
(s +
) - 10
C
RC
CV P
s

1
L
B0 =
0

Dynamic analysis of s

x 20
L
E=
.
- x 10
C

-1

1
L

1
C

U 1 (s)
.

U 2 (s)

94

Switching Converter Transfer


Functions
BOOST CONVERTER
1
1 x 10H(s)
[s +
]
L
RC CV P
X 1(s) =
.
x
10H(s)R
U 1(s)
s[1]
(1- D )2 x 20H(S)(1- D)
V
2
P
+
+
s +
RC
LC
LCV P

-(1- D)
H(s)
[1+ u 10
]
2
LC
X 1(s) =
V P(1- D )
.
2
s
H(s)
(1D
H(s)
)
U 2(s)
u
u
2
[1- 10
]+
[1+ 10
]
s +
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )

Power switchin

1- D
X 2(s) =
LC
.
2
s
(1- D )
U 1(s)
u
u
10H(s)
10H(s)
2
[1]+
[1+
]
s +
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )

X 2(s) =
U 2(s)

s
C

2
s
u 10H(s) ] + (1- D ) [1+ u 10H(s) ]
+
[1s
2
2
RC
LC
V P(1- D )
V P(1- D )
2

Dynamic analysis of s

95

Complete state feedback


This

technique allows us to calculate the


gains of the feedback vector required to place
the closed-loop poles at a desired location

All

the states of the converter are sensed and


multiplied by a feedback gain

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

96

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback

x A x B
u

control strategy

u F x

x ( A B F ) x

closed-loop poles
det[ s I A B F ] 0

The closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed by choosing the


elements of F
Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

97

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
Pole selection
One way of choosing the closed-loop poles is to select an ith
order low-pass Bessel filter for the transfer function, where i is
the order of the system that is being designed
Feedback gains
F PLACE ( A B P )

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

98

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
Example

A buck converter designed to operate in the


continuous conduction mode has the following
parameters: R = 4 , L = 1.330 mH, C = 94 F, Vs =
42 V, and Va = 12 V.

Calculate (a) the open-loop poles, (b) the feedback


gains to locate the closed loop poles at P = 1000 * {0.3298 + 0.10i -0.3298 - 0.10i}, (c) the closed loop
system matrix ACL.

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

99

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
Solution
0

A1

1
1
L
; B1 L
1
0
RC

A2

L
; B2
1

RC

0
0

A A1 D A2 (1 D);
B B1 D B 2 (1 D)

Power switchin

1
D
L
; B L
1
0
RC

Dynamic analysis of s

100

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback

polesOL = eig(A)
polesOL = 1000 * { -1.3298 + 2.4961i, -1.3298 - 2.4961i}

^
^
1 ^
x1 ( x 2 D u d U )
L

1 ^ 1 ^
x 2 ( x1 x 2 )
C
R

1
L
1
RC

Power switchin

D ^

x
1
L u

^
x
0
2

U ^
L d

Dynamic analysis of s

101

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
Step response of the linearized buck converter

sysOL=ss(A,B,C,0)
step(sysOL)

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

102

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
design the control strategy

U
E L

0

x A x E d

u0

D ^
d
v ref
Vref
^

for voltage-mode control

If we apply complete state feedback v ref F x

D
x A x E (
F x)
Vref
^

Power switchin

^
D
x (A E
F) x
Vref

Dynamic analysis of s

D
ACL A E
F
Vref

103

Design of a control system with


complete state feedback
we calculate the feedback gains as
P=1000 *[-0.3298 + 0.10i -0.3298 - 0.10i]'
F place( A, E

D
, P)
Vref

Then, F = {-2.6600 -0.3202}.


ACL A E

D
F
Vref

0.2000 -0.0511
ACL 1e4

1.0638 -0.2660

check the locations of the closed loop poles


eig(ACL); which gives
ans = 1e+2 * [ -3.2980 + 1.0000i -3.2980 - 1.0000i]
Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

104

PSpice schematic

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

105

Transient response of the


open-loop and closed-loop
converters

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

106

Expanded view of the transient


at 5 ms

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

107

Input EMI filters

An input EMI filter placed between the power source


and the switching converter is often required to
preserve the integrity of the power source

The major purpose of the input EMI filter is to


prevent the input current waveform of the switching
converter from interfering with the power source

As such, the major role of the input EMI filter is to


optimize the mismatch between the power source
and switching converter impedances

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

108

Input EMI filters


Circuit model of a buck converter with an input EMI filter

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

109

Input EMI filters


Stability Considerations
The

stability of a closed-loop switching


converter with an input EMI filter can be
found by comparing the output impedance of
the input EMI filter to the input impedance of
the switching converter

The

closed-loop switching converter exhibits


a negative input impedance

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

110

Input EMI filters


Output impedance of the EMI filter

Z EMI =

R s + j L I
.
2
(1 - C I L I ) + j R sC I

Input impedance versus frequency for a buck converter


2

RL
R LC o
+
]
+
j

[
]),
Z in = _ 2 ( [
R
L
e
o
2
2
1+( R LC o )
1+( R LC o )
D

At the resonant frequency


Z in = -

Re .
2
D

Above the resonant frequency


Z in = -

j L
D

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

111

Input EMI filters


Stability Considerations

The maximum output impedance of the input EMI filter, Z EMI,max,


must be less than the magnitude of the input impedance of the
switching converter to avoid instability
.

Z in Z EMI,max

The switching converter negative input impedance in


combination with the input EMI filter can under certain conditions
constitute a negative resistance oscillator
Z in // Z EMI
To ensure stability, however, the poles of
should lie in the left-hand plane

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

112

Input EMI filters


Stability Considerations

A resistance in series with the input EMI filter inductor can be


added to improve stability

However, it is undesirable to increase the series resistance of the


input EMI filter to improve stability since it increases conduction
losses

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

113

Input EMI filters


Input EMI filter with LR reactive damping

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

114

Input EMI filters


Input EMI filter with RC reactive damping

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

115

Input EMI filters


Stability Considerations

It should be noted that high core losses in the input EMI filter
inductor is desirable to dissipate the energy at the EMI frequency
so as to prevent it from being reflected back to the power source

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

116

Input EMI filters


A fourth-order input EMI filter with LR reactive damping

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

117

Input EMI filters


Input impedance, Zin(f), of the buck converter and output
impedance, ZEMI(f), of the input EMI filter
Z ( ) =

1
2

2
RL
R
LC o
+
+

R
L
e
o

2
1+( R LC o )2
1+( R LC o )

R s +( L I )
.
Z EMI ( ) =
2
2
2
1- C I L I +( R sC I )
2

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

118

Part 2
Discrete-time models
Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

119

Continuous-time and discrete-time


domains
continuous-time system

x& A x(t ) B
u (t )

The solution for the differential equation

x(t ) e x(to ) e A(t ) B u( ) d


At

to

e At 123
I At A2
t 2 2
t

A( t )
e
B
u ( ) d

to
t

A( t )
e
B
u ( ) d

e A t I A1 B u

A
t I
A 1 B u

to

x(t ) e At x(to ) t B u(to )

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

120

Continuous-time and discrete-time


domains
the discrete-time expression
to (n D ) Ts
t (n 1 D ) Ts
x[(n 1 D) Ts ] e ATs x[(n D ) Ts ] Ts B u[(n D
) Ts ]

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

121

Continuous-time state-space model


Equivalent circuit during ton: A1

x A1 x B1 u

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

122

Continuous-time state-space model


Equivalent circuit during toff: A2

x A2 x B2 u

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

123

Continuous-time state-space model


switching functions
1 if nTs t ( n d n )Ts
d (t )
0 if (n d n )Ts t (n 1)Ts
d '(t ) 1 d (t )

nonlinear model

x d (t ) A1 d '(t ) A2 x d (t ) B1 d '(t ) B 2 u

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

124

Continuous-time state-space model


small-signal model
u Vs v$s

d n D d$n

d d d$

d ' 1 d

x x x$

1 if nTs t (n D)Ts
d (t )
0 if (n D)Ts t (n 1)Ts
sgn( d n D) if t ( n D)Ts , (n d n )Ts
d$(t )
0 otherwise

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

125

Continuous-time state-space model

steady-state equation

x d A1 d ' A2 x d B1 d ' B2 Vs

perturbation in the state vector

x$ d A1 d ' A2 x d B1 d ' B 2 v$s A1 A2 x B1 B2 Vs d

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

126

Discrete-time model of the switching


converter
n D Ts , n 1 Ts

x$ A2 x$ B2 v$s K d$n Ts t n D Ts
K B A1 A2 x n D Ts B1 B2 Vs

x$ n 1 Ts e A2 D 'Ts e A2 D 'Ts x$ n D Ts e A2 D 'Ts K Ts d$n

n 1 Ts

n D Ts

A2 n 1 Ts

B2 v$s d

n 1 Ts , n 1 D Ts

x$ A1 x$

x$ n 1 D Ts e A1 DTs e A2 D 'Ts x$ n D Ts e A1DTs e A2 D 'Ts K Ts d$n

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

127

Design of a discrete control


system with complete state
feedback
x(n 1) A x(n) B
u (n)
u (n) F x(n)
x(n 1) ( A F B ) x (n)
det[ z I A F B ] 0

The closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed by choosing the


elements of F
Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

128

Design of a discrete control


system with complete state
feedback
Pole selection
One way of choosing the closed-loop poles is to design a lowpass Bessel filter of the same order
The step response of a Bessel filter has no overshoot, thus it is
suitable for a voltage regulator
The desired filter can then be selected for a step response that
meets a specified settling time
Feedback gains
Power switchin

L PLACE ( d d P )

Dynamic analysis of s

129

Design of a discrete control


system with complete state
feedback
Voltage mode control

x n 1 Ts e

D $
d$
v ref
Vref
^

A1 DTs

A2 D 'Ts

x nTs e

x[( n 1) Ts ] x[nTs] d n

A1 DTs

A2 D 'Ts

K Ts d n

$x n 1 T D
s

Vref

e A1 DTs e A2 D 'Ts

K Ts

CL

K ( B B )V
1
2
s

D $
x$ n 1 Ts x$ nTs
v ref
Vref

Power switchin

v$ref F x$ nTs

Dynamic analysis of s

$
F x nTs

Vref

x$ n 1 Ts CL x$ nTs

130

Extended-state model for a


tracking regulator
Digital tracking system with full-state feedback

iL [n]
0

xd [n] vc [n] d
; d 0

a

a
xa [n ]
y cx

Power switchin

L L1

L2

ya L2 xa

Dynamic analysis of s

131

Current mode control


Sensitivities of the duty cycle
^

dn

d n ^ d n ^ d n ^
x1
x2
Ip
x1
x2
I p

x1 iL
x2 vC

d n ^ d n ^ d n ^
dn
iL
vc
Ip
iL
vc
I p

dn

^
L
iL
(Vd Vc ) Ts

D ^
dn
vc
Vd Vc
^

^
L
dn
Ip
(Vd Vc ) Ts
^

d n
d
d
; 2 n ; 3 n ; and [1 2 ]
x1
x2
I p

^
^
iL
d n 1 2 ^ 3 I p
{

^
v c

dF
1 44 2 4 43
^

d n d CM d F

d CM

Power switchin

Dynamic analysis of s

132

Current mode control


With complete state feedback
^

CM

x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] d n

I p F x nTs
^

x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] (d CM d F )
^

x$ n 1 Ts CM 3 F x$ nTs
^

x[(n 1) Ts ] x[nTs ] x[nTs ] 3 I p


^

x[(n 1) Ts ] CM x[nTs ] 3 I p

Power switchin

CL CM 3 F
x$ n 1 Ts CL x$ nTs

Dynamic analysis of s

133

Extended-state model for a tracking


regulator
Digital tracking system with full-state feedback

iL [n]
xd [n] vc [n]
xa [n ]

Power switchin


d CM
a c

L L1
d

a
0
0

Dynamic analysis of s

L2

134

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