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The Lance
In
The
Where L, the height of the lance tip above the bath surface,
is a key operating variable in the BOF process. With
changing JFN (say, by changing L), the following behaviour
of the liquid bath at the impact zone has been observed.
At
At
At
splashing.
The
L.D. process was developed using a lance with a cylindrical nozzle. The
physics of a jet issuing from such a nozzle was hardly understood at that time.
The drawbacks of using a cylindrical nozzle for steelmaking were, therefore,
unknown. The successful development and commercial adoption of the L.D.
process later on led to the study of physics of the supersonic jets and thereby
develop a proper lance design.
It
is now known that the supersonic jet issuing from the nozzle of a lance in a
L.D. process should penetrate the bath adequately and that the area of its
impact on the bath should be maximum. These conditions are essential
chiefly for efficient refining, i.e. for decarburisation as well as dephosphorisation.
.
The
For a given size nozzle the length of the supersonic core depends on
the blowing pressure and the ratio of the densities of the jet-gas and the
ambient atmosphere. Although the density of the ambient atmosphere in
the L.D. process changes during the blow, an average value is assumed
to calculate the length of the supersonic core.
During the blow the jet should be expanded to obtain maximum impact
area at the bath surface. At the same time, it should also penetrate the
bath surface to a maximum extent. The depth of penetration of a jet in
a metal bath varies inversely with the impact area at the bath
surface. The requirements, therefore, can only be met at the optimum.
In the blowing position the lance height from the still bath level has to be
more than the length over which the supersonic core extends in the jet,
since the jet is not fully expanded until that point. In actual practice the
proper height would be around 40-50 times the diameter of the
nozzle.
Much
The
Improvement
of slopping and spitting and thus less of mechanical losses, in turn better
yield
improved
mixing of slag and metal and thereby better mass transport and hence
better rate of refining
less
rate
better
better
much
high
The
In
Cont..
The
Removal
Cont..
Cont..
Slopping
Better mixing and homogeneity in the bath offer the following advantages:
Less
mixing and mass transfer in the metal bath with closer approach to
Hybrid Blowing
A small amount of inert gas, about 3% of the volume of oxygen
blown from top, introduced from bottom, agitates the bath so
effectively that slopping is almost eliminated.
However for obtaining near equilibrium state of the system inside
the vessel a substantial amount of gas has to be introduced from
the bottom.
If 20-30% of the total oxygen, if blown from bottom, can cause
adequate stirring for the system to achieve near equilibrium
conditions. The increase beyond 30% therefore contributes
negligible addition of benefits.
Cont..
Cont..
What
Deoxidation of steel
The oxidizing conditions of a heat in a steelmaking plant, the
presence of oxidizing slag, and the interaction of the metal with the
surrounding atmosphere at tapping and teeming - all these factors
are responsible for the fact that the dissolved oxygen in steel has a
definite, often elevated, activity at the moment of steel tapping. The
procedure by which the activity of oxygen can be lowered to the
required limit is called deoxidation. Steel subjected to deoxidation is
termed 'deoxidized'. If deoxidized steel is 'quiet during solidification
in moulds, with almost no gases evolving from it, it is called 'killed
steel'.
If the metal is tapped and teemed without being deoxidized, the reaction
[O] + [C] = COg will take place between the dissolved oxygen and
carbon as the metal is cooled slowly in the mould. Bubbles of carbon
monoxide evolve from the solidifying metal, agitate the metal in the
mould vigorously, and the metal surface is seen to 'boil'. Such steel is
called 'wild'; when solidified, it will be termed 'rimming steel' .
In some cases, only partial deoxidation is carried out, i.e. oxygen is only
partially removed from the metal. The remaining dissolved oxygen
causes the metal to boil for a short time. This type of steel is termed
'semi-killed'.
The activity of oxygen in the metal can be lowered by two methods: (I)
by lowering the oxygen concentration, or
(2) by combining oxygen into stable compounds.
There are the following main practical methods for deoxidation of steel:
(a) precipitation deoxidation, or deoxidation in the bulk;
(b) diffusion deoxidation;
(c) treatment with synthetic slags; and
(d) vacuum treatment.
Continuous casting
The advantages of continuous casting (over ingot
casting) are:
It is directly possible to cast blooms, slabs and
billets, thus eliminating blooming, slabbing mills
completely, and billet mills to a large extent.
Better quality of the cast product.
Higher crude-to-finished steel yield (about 10 to
20% more than ingot casting).
Higher extent of automation and process control.
The
The
The
The
The
product.
The
machine smoothly.
High
rolls.
The
qav is not the same for all the strands in CC machines. qav exhibits
an overall range of 800 to 2000 kW/m 2 of ingot surface area.
At
Sustained
will be seen that after 1990, there has not been any substantial
Increase in casting speed in recent years in the main slab casters in Japan.
METALLURGICAL COMPARISON OF
CONTINUOUS CASTING WITH INGOT CASTING
Cont
Inclusions get less time to float-up. Therefore, any nonmetallic particle coming into the melt at the later stages
tends to remain entrapped in the cast product.
Mathematically
depth of the liquid metal pool is several metres long. Hence, the
Since
the ingot is withdrawn continuously from the mould, the frozen layer
stresses are the highest at the surface. Moreover, when the ingot
comes out of the mould, the thickness of the frozen steel shell is not very
appreciable. Furthermore, it is at around 1100-1200C, and is therefore,
weak. All these factors tend to cause cracks at the surface of the ingot
leading to rejections.
Use
Segregation
Segregation
greater than the average it is called positive and if it is less than the average, it is
called negative segregation.
Steel
segregation during solidification. The initial chill layer of the ingot has practically the
same composition as that of the steel poured in the mould, i.e. there is no
segregation in the chill layer because of very rapid rate of solidification. The
progressive solidification thereafter results in solidifications of purer phase (rich in
iron) while the remaining liquid gets richer in impurity contents.
may be due to the sinking of purer crystals down and rising up of the
impure liquid in the upper part. The impurities get entrapped in impure
part at the end of solidification. This is the positive segregation.
The
ingot. In the actual ingot these zones are not as sharp as are shown in
slide; these are quite diffused.
When
During
chill zone which solidifies first is usually purer. The central part of the
Homogenization
AS
the fraction of the solid in the "mushy" region increases, the liquid is not
Secondary
upper part containing the exposed pipe in killed steels has to be rejected
and this decreases the yield to about 80%. The yield from a rimmed ingot is
higher.
Only
a killed steel can be continuously cast. In contrast to ingot steel, the yield
Secondary Steelmaking
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
Secondary steelmaking
Primary steelmaking is aimed at fast melting
and rapid refining. It is capable of refining at a
macro level to arrive at broad steel
specifications, but is not designed to meet the
stringent demands on steel quality, and
consistency of composition and temperature
that is required for very sophisticated grades of
steel. In order to achieve such requirements,
liquid steel from primary steelmaking units has
to be further refined in the ladle after tapping.
This is known as Secondary Steelmaking.
in quality
improvement in production rate
decrease in energy consumption
use of relatively cheaper grade or
alternative raw materials
use of alternate sources of energy
higher recovery of alloying elements.
Quality of Steel
Lower
impurity contents .
Better cleanliness. (i.e. lower inclusion
contents)
Stringent quality control. (i.e. less variation
from heat-to-heat)
Microalloying to impart superior
properties.
Better surface quality and homogeneity in
the cast product.
Clean Steel
The
Inclusions
Sources of Inclusions
Precipitation due to reaction from molten steel or during
freezing because of reaction between dissolved oxygen
and the deoxidisers, with consequent formation of oxides
(also reaction with dissolved sulphur as well). These are
known as endogenous inclusions.
Mechanical and chemical erosion of the refractory lining
Entrapment of slag particles in steel
Oxygen pick up from the atmosphere, especially during
teeming, and consequent oxide formation.
Inclusions originating from contact with external sources
as listed in items 2 to 4 above, are called exogenous
inclusions.
Removal of Inclusions
With a lower wettability (higher value of Me
inc
),
Deoxidation
Cont
Process Varieties
The varieties of secondary steelmaking
processes that have proved to be of commercial
value can broadly be categorised as under:
Stirring treatments
Synthetic slag refining with stirring
Vacuum treatments
Decarburisation techniques
Injection metallurgy
Plunging techniques
Post-solidification treatments.
VOD
(vacuum oxygen
decarburization)
Submitted by
ABHISEK PANDA
108MM003
What is VOD???
VOD design
Final Composition
THE total VOD cycle lasts for 2 -2.5 hours.
Final sulphur content-0.01%
Final carbon content-0.02%
Final chromium content-15-18%(recovery
~97%)
The final composition shows that for
producing low carbon high alloy steel,its a
very good method.
Benefits of VOD
Deep carbon removal
Low loses of chromium in treatment of
stainless steel
Sulphur removal
Precise alloying
Temperature and chemical uniformity.
Non-metallic inclusions removal
Application of VOD
Stainless steel production
Homogenization of ladle content
Manufacturing large steel ingots
Manufacturing rails,bail-bearings,other high
quality steels
Here the initial carbon percentage in molten
metal before treated in VOD is 0.7%0.8%.that is a limitation ,where as in other
ladle degassing routes,it could be allowed
up to 2%.
Recent improvement
on VOD
REFERENCE
Steel
Ladle Furnace
It is a simple ladle like furnace provided with bottom plug for argon
purging and lid with electrodes to become an arc furnace for heating
the bath.
Chutes are provided for additions and an opening even for injection.
Cont..
ASEA-SKF Furnace
The ladle shell is made of austenitic stainless steel for this reason.
Two ladle covers are employed. One of these fits tightly on to the
ladle forming a vacuum seal, and is connected to a steam ejector
unit for evacuation of the ladle chamber.
Tapping
Vacuum
Extensive
Deoxidation.
Desulphurisation
Temperature
Teeming
adjustment.
Post-Solidification Treatments
The other two techniques that have been developed are meant
for the production of, not pure metals, but alloy steels of better
cleanliness and low sulphur contents. The vacuum arc remelting,
VAR(750kWh/ton) for short and the electro slag refining, ESR
(900-1300kWh/ton) for short, are commercially used for further
refining of steels after these are cast into ingots.
In
Stream
degassing processes
Circulation
Sketch of a RH
degasser
RH DEGASSER
Molten steel is contained in the ladle. The two legs of the vacuum
chamber (known as Snorkels) are immersed into the melt. Argon is
injected into the up leg.
Rising and expanding argon bubbles provide pumping action and lift
the liquid into the vacuum chamber, where it disintegrates into fine
droplets, gets degassed and comes down through the down leg
snorkel, causing melt circulation.
RH-OB Process
Hence,
The
Subsequently,
steels.
The
SS Making
Ferrochrome, which contains about 55 to 70% chromium is the
principal source of Chromium. This ferroalloy can be classified into
various grades, based primarily on their carbon :ontent, such as:
Low carbon ferrochrome (about 0.1 % C).
Intermediate carbon ferrochrome (about 2% C).
High carbon ferrochrome (around 7% C).
Amongst
The higher the temperature, the greater is the tendency for preferential
oxidation of carbon rather than chromium. From this point of view, higher bath
temperatures are desirable; however, too high a temperature in the bath gives rise to
other process problems.
The dilution of oxygen with argon lowers the partial pressure of CO, which
helps in preferential removal of CO without oxidising bath chromium. Attempts
were made to use this in the EAF, but the efforts did not succeed. Hence, as is the
case with the production of plain carbon steels, the EAF is now basically a melting
unit for stainless steel production as well. Decarburisation is carried out partially in
the EAF, and the rest of the carbon is removed in a separate refining vessel. In this
context, the development of the AOD process was a major breakthrough in stainless
steelmaking.
The combination of EAF and AOD is sufficient for producing ordinary grades
of stainless steels and this combination is referred to as a Duplex Process.
Subsequent minor refining, temperature and composition adjustments, if
required, can be undertaken in a ladle furnace. Triplex refining, where electric
arc furnace melting and converter refining are followed by refining in a vacuum
system, is often desirable when the final product requires very low carbon and
nitrogen levels.
AOD PROCESS
AOD PROCESS
Cont..
Use
ARGON OXYGEN
DECARBURIZATION
(AOD)
How It works
ELECTRIC ARC
FURNACE
TRANSF
ER
LADLE O2
N2
ARGON
AOD
ARGON
OXYGEN
BOTTOM
POURING
LADLE
DECARBURIZATIO
N
INGOT PROCESS
CUT
OFF
PACKAGE
CONTINUOUS CASTING
MACHINE
Decarburization
Reduction
Desulphurization
References
http://www.praxair.com/praxair.nsf/0/48
740DF62F17EB22852569DE007457CC/$
file/P-10018.pdf
http://
www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=Check
Article&site=kts&NM=220
IRON MAKING AND STEEL MAKING
By:Ahindra Ghosh and Amit Chatterjee
Finex process
FINEX PROCESS
The fine DRI is compacted and then charged in the form of Hot
Compacted Iron (HCI) into the melter gasifier. So, before charging
to the melter- gasifier unit of the FINEX unit, this material is
compacted in a hot briquetting press to give hot compacted iron
(HCI)
since the melter- gasifier can not use fine material (to ensure
permeability in the bed).
Ahindra Ghosh and Amit Chatterjee: Ironmaking and Steelmaking Theory and Practice, PrenticeHall of India Private Limited, 2008
Anil K. Biswas: Principles of Blast Furnace Ironmaking, SBA Publication,1999
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Iron Making, Khanna Publishers.
R.H.Tupkary and V.R.Tupkary: An Introduction to Modern Steel Making, Khanna Publishers.
David H. Wakelin (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Ironmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
Richard J.Fruehan (ed.): The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel (Steeelmaking Volume), The
AISE Steel Foundation, 2004.
A.Ghosh, Secondary Steel Making Principle & Applications, CRC Press 2001.
R.G.Ward: Physical Chemistry of iron & steel making, ELBS and Edward Arnold, 1962.
F.P.Edneral: Electrometallurgy of Steel and Ferro-Alloys, Vol.1 Mir Publishers,1979
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan,: "Kinetics of the Reaction of SiO(g) with Carbon Saturated Iron":
Metall. Trans. B, Vol. 16B, 1985, p. 121.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan: "The Reaction of SiO(g) with Liquid Slags, Metall. Trans.B,
Volume 17B, 1986, p. 397.
B. Ozturk and R. J. Fruehan:.Transfer of Silicon in Blast Furnace": , Proceedings of the fifth
International Iron and Steel Congress, Washington D.C., 1986, p. 959.
P. F. Nogueira and R. J. Fruehan: Blast Furnace Softening and Melting Phenomena - Melting
Onset in Acid and Basic Pellets", , ISS-AIME lronmaking Conference, 2002, pp. 585.
Paulo Nogueira, Richard Fruehan: "Blast Furnace Burden Softening and Melting
Phenomena-Part I Pellet Bulk Interaction Observation", , Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, Volume 35B, 2004, pp. 829.
P.F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan: 'Fundamental Studies on Blast Furnace Burden
Softening and Melting", Proceedings of 2nd International Meeting on lronmaking,
September 2004, Vitoria, Brazil.
Paulo F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan, "Blast Furnace Softening and Melting
Phenomena - Part III: Melt Onset and Initial Microstructal Transformation in Pellets",
submitted to Materials and Metallurgical Transactions B.
Paulo F. Nogueira, Richard J. Fruehan :Blast Furnace Burden Softening and Melting
Phenomena-Part II Evolution of the Structure of the Pellets", Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions, Volume 36B, 2005, pp. 583
MA Jitang: Injecuion of flux into Blast Furnace via Tuyeres for optimizing slag
formation ISIJ International, Volume 39, No7 1999,pp697
Y.S.Lee, J.R.Kim, S.H.Yi and D.J.Min: Viscous behavior of CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgOFeO Slag, Proceedings of VIIInternational Conferenceon -Molten slags,fluxes and
salts, The South African Institute of Minig and Metallurgy, 2004,pp225
Electric Steelmaking
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
NIT Rourkela
The furnace proper looks more like a saucepan covered from top with an
inverted saucer as shown in next slide. The electrodes are inserted through
the cover from top. Arc furnaces are of two different designs:
The roof along with the electrodes swing clearly off the body to facilitate
charging from top.
The roof is lifted a little and the furnace body moves to one side clearly off
the roof to facilitate charging.
For smaller furnaces both of these alternatives are equally well suited but
for bigger sizes the body becomes too heavy to move and hence the swingaside roof design is favoured. It is quite popular even with small furnaces.
Electrodes,
Process: If the raw materials are very low in P and S acid lined furnace
can be used for refining, using an acid slag as in an acid open hearth
practices. It is generally restricted to foundries.
Basic
basic slag in a basic lined furnace. Unlike any other steelmaking process
electric furnace has practically no oxidising atmosphere of its own. Oxidising
as well as reducing conditions for refining can be maintained by making slags
of suitable compositions. Oxidising refining is carried out under a slag
containing good amount of iron oxide. Reducing conditions can be maintained
by having the slag highly basic but practically free of iron oxide. The following
describes the ways in which these slags are used for refining in an arc
furnace:
Since
EAF steelmaking is primarily scrap/DRI based and both these materials have
relatively low levels of residual impurities, the extent of refining is much less than in
BOH steelmaking.
As
a process, EAF is much more versatile than BOH and can make a wide range of
steel grades.
Sorting
out of scrap and choosing the proper scrap grade are important for EAF
steelmaking, since the extent of refining has to be managed accordingly. For this
purpose, scrap may be classified into the following categories:
scrap
scrap
containing completely oxidisable elements, such as AI, Si, Ti, V, Zr, etc.
scrap
Scrap of type (b) and (c) can be tackled easily during refining. Type (d)
scrap would require some special attention. However, type (a) scrap
gives rise to problems like undesirable residuals in the final steel. This is
where DRI scores over scrap--it is totally. free from all the above
undesirable elements.
In
EAF steelmaking also, the initial bath carbon is maintained at about 0.3%
above the final carbon specification during oxidising refining. However, stirring is
absent during refining under a reducing slag, and some other stirring technique
(use of mechanical stirrers called rabbles) is required. Recent developments in
EAF steelmaking have taken place primarily in the context of largescale
production of plain carbon and low alloy steels. Of course, some of these
developments have also been implemented in smaller scale of operation as well
as for the production of high alloy steels, such as stainless steels.
Besides
Ultra
DC
arc furnace
Oxygen
Use
Foamy
Bath
slag practice
stirring by argon
Auxiliary
Use
Hot
Pre-heating
Eccentric
bottom tapping
Emission
Process
Use
of UHP enables faster melting of the solid charge, thereby decreasing the
MVA for UHP operations. It has been possible to achieve such figures owing to
major advances in electrical engineering in the last few decades.
Another
DC arc has one electrode and the circuit is completed through the conducting
Oxygen
that include: oxidation of carbon and some iron from the bath
releasing chemical energy with consequent saving of electrical
energy; faster removal of carbon and other impurities following
faster slag formation and the generation of a foamy slag.
In
Higher slag viscosity and the presence of undissolved solid particles assist
foaming, which speeds-up slag-metal reactions, such as dephosphorisation.
The
help bath mixing, concurrent top and bottom blowing has been
large EAFs also the problem of mixing exists, to some extent. Oxygen
lancing and flow of current through the metal bath in DC arc furnaces
induce some amount of bath motion, which is sometimes insufficient.
Better
earlier. Therefore, many modem EAFs are equipped with bottom tuyeres
for injection of argon, etc.
However,
excess hot metal usage can prolong the refining time and give rise to
DRI/HBI has very low impurity content (i.e. P, Si, S, and, of course, the tramp elements)
and hence does not require any additional refining time. However, it is a porous material
that tends to get severely oxidised in contact with moist air at high temperature. Up to
about 30% DR! (of the total charge) can be charged along with scrap in buckets, if bucket
charging is practiced. First a layer of scrap, then DR! and then another layer of scrap are
used in each bucket. If continuous charging facilities for charging DRI throughout the heat
in small amounts are available, the proportion can be increased to 50-60% and
sometimes, even more. In all cases, HBI is preferred since it is dense and does not
get oxidised very readily.
Solid
Hot
pig iron
Use
of AIS is gaining popularity in EAF steelmaking. DRI/HBI is now the principal feed
stock next to scrap. In 2005, the worldwide DRI/HBI production was just over 56 million
tonnes, which was slightly more than 15% of the scrap consumption.
Solid
pig iron and hot metal are also important AIS, constituting about 5-8% of the total
feed. In the case of EAF shops located inside an integrated steel plant, blast furnace hot
metal is available. Otherwise, hot metal can be produced either in a mini blast furnace
or in a smelting reduction unit. Both these have been used in EAF steelmaking,
since
hot metal charging is advantageous from a thermal point of view being already
molten and the oxidation of its impurities provides chemical energy; 1 kg hot metal
charge per tonne of steel saves electricity by about 0.5 kWh/t
promotes
foaming by the evolution of CO and gives all the advantages of a foamy slag.
With the use of DRI/HBI, melting and refining can proceed simultaneously. In some
EAF shop even up to 100% DRI is used by adopting what is known as the hot heel
practice. Here, molten steel from a previous heat is not tapped out completely and is
allowed to remain in the EAF to provide a liquid metal bath for DR! charging right
from the beginning of the next heat.
The quality of DRI is judged by its following characteristics:
Gangue content
Percentage metallisation
Carbon content
The
the iron oxide feedstock. For optimum usage in steelmaking, the gangue
content should be as low as possible; otherwise, large slag volumes and
hence more lime addition are required. This has an adverse effect on the
consumption of energy.
The
high metallisation lowers the turbulence that is induced in the bath when
FeO in DRI reacts with the bath carbon).
During
the production of DRI (particularly gas-based DRI) carbon in the form of iron
The carbon percentage in DRI depends on the process of sponge iron making-in
in DRI lowers its melting point and when it reacts readily with any unreduced
iron oxide, CO is evolved, which contributes towards the formation of a foamy slag.
This
is required for efficient steelmaking and hence, steel makers prefer higher
case this amount of carbon is not available in DRI, additional carbon input by
injection of coke breeze along with oxygen becomes necessary. The addition of hot
metal can also provide a source of carbon
Charge pre-heating
If
and during the progress of the EAF heat, vigorous evolution of CO and some
amount of hydrogen takes place.
This
Separate
At
the same time, since it is at high temperature when it comes out of the
of 600-700C, resulting in 10-15% power saving. As a result, use of preheated DRI/HBI has become a standard practice in many EAF plants.
Induction furnaces
In
There
The
that when a flux which links a coil is changing, there is an electromotive force (emf) induced in the coil. If these flux linkages change
in a closed electric circuit, the emf produced causes a current to
flow. A solid metallic block will produce currents swirling around in
eddys in a plane perpendicular to the flux. These eddy currents
produce the I2R losses which generate the heat required. Proper
selection of coil frequency and power density allows for the
practical application of induction heating and melting .
The
Induction Melting
The two basic designs of induction furnaces, the coretype or channel furnace and the
coreless.
Both types have advantages which make one or the other suitable to a particular operation.
The channel furnace is the most efficient type of induction furnace. The core-type
construction provides maximum power transfer into the metal. This design has a distinct
advantage of providing a large capacity of molten metal with low holding power level. It is
an excellent furnace for small foundries with special requirements for large castings,
especially if off-shift melting is practiced. It is widely used for duplexing operations and
installations where production requirements demand a safe cushion of readily available
molten metal. Because of the requirement to keep the channel molten, core-type furnaces
are energized 24 hours a day. This limits its use to single alloys or similar base-alloy
applications. Power supplies are of line frequencies of 60 or 50 Hz.
The coreless induction furnace is used when a quick melt of one alloy is desirable, or it is
necessary to vary alloys frequently. The coreless furnace may be completely emptied and
restarted easily, which makes it perfect for one-shift operation
inductor being the external conductor and the molten metal, the internal
one.
Since
other. The inductor, which is a rigid conductor, remains fixed, while the
molten metal is compressed from the walls towards the axis of the crucible.
Upon
passage from the annular gap between the inductor and metal, the
magnetic flux extends horizontally over the metal surface. The horizontal
component of magnetic field strength produces electrodynamic forces acting
perpendicular to the metal surface, i.e. downwards at the open surface and
upwards at the crucible bottom, the forces being at their maximum at the
wall of the crucible. The
The
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