Conventional Tubes

Conventional Device tubes cannot be

used for frequencies above 100MHz
1. Interelectrode capacitance
2. Lead Inductance effect
3. Transit time effect
4. Gain Bandwidth limitation
5. Effect of RF losses (Conductance,
dielectric)
6. Effect due to radiation losses

 Efficient Microwave tubes usually

operate on the theory of electron
velocity modulation concept
The electron transit time is used in
the conversion of dc power to RF
power

Linear Beam O tubes

The paramount O type tube is the two cavity klystron followed by the
reflex klystron.
Slow wave structures are also O-type but have non-resonant periodic
structures for electron interactions.
Twystron is a hybrid amplifier which uses a combination of klystron and
Slow wave structures.

KLYSTRON
There are two basic configurations of
klystron tubes
1. Reflex Klystron used as a low-power
Microwave oscillator
2. Multi cavity klystron used as lowpower microwave amplifier

REFLEX KLYSTRON

Drawbacks of klystron
amplifiers
1. As the oscillator frequency changes then resonator
frequency also changes and the feedback path phase
shift must be readjusted for a positive feedback.
2. The multicavity klystron amplifiers suffer from the
noise caused because bunching is never complete
and electrons arrive at random at catcher cavity.
Hence it is not used in receivers.
3. Cavities used in a two-cavity klystron have high Q
values with narrow bandwidths, and thus, individual
tuning is awkward. Therefore, two- cavity klystrons
are generally used for fixed-frequency applications.

Reflex Klystron

 The analysis of a reflex klystron is similar to that

of a two-cavity klystron to some extent and is
subjected to the following approximations:
1. Cavity grids and repeller are plane and
parallel, and also very large in extent.
2. RF field is absent in the repeller space.
3. Electrons are not intercepted by the cavity
anode grid.
4. No debunching of electrons takes place in the
repeller space.
5. RF gap voltage is small compared to the beam
voltage.

 The electron velocity v attained due to the dc

beam voltage Vo while entering the cavity gap at
t=0 is uniform, given by
v=v = 2(eVo/ m) = 5.93*106 V m/sec
o
0

Instantaneous cavity RF voltage can be written as

V(t)=V1Sint.
The average transit time through the cavity gap d
and the transit angle

When the electron leaves the cavity at z = d at

time t1 , it will have the following velocity:

 These velocity-modulated electrons is forced back to

the cavity z = d and time t2 by the retarding electric
field:

The force equation for one electron in the repeller

region

Integrating the above,

 Now v(t1) = C

, Substitute this in the equation

Further integrating

 So C

= d substitute this in equation

Since the electrons return to the cavity gap at time

t2, at t=t2, z = d. Thus, we can write that

where T is the round trip transit time.

 Now substitute velocity modulation eqn

is the round trip DC transit time of the centre of the

bunch electron.

is the round trip DC transit angle of

the centre of the bunch electron

is the bunching parameter of

the reflex klystron oscillator.

Power Output and Efficiency

To transfer maximum energy to the oscillator, the
returning electron must cross the cavity gap when
the gap field is maximum retarding. Therefore, the
round trip transit angle of the centre of the bunch
is given as follows:

the beam current injected into the cavity is now in

the negative z-direction

 The fundamental component of the current induced in

the cavity by the modulated electron beam is

The magnitude of the fundamental component can be

written as follows
The DC power supplied by the beam voltage is given by
Pdc=VoIo
whereas the ac power delivered to the load is
expressed as Pac= V1I2/2. Substitute I2, Pac= V1I0iJ1(X)

 The factor XJ1(X) reaches a maximum value of

1.25 at X=2.408. and J1(X)= J1(2.408)=0.52
In practice, the mode corresponding to n = 2 or N
=1 has the most output power. Thus, the
maximum efficiency of a reflex klystron is calculated
as follows:

Electronic Admittance
If an electron returns to the cavity a little before the
time T(n- ), the current lags behind the fields and an
inductive reactance is presented to the circuit.
On the other hand, if the electron returns to the cavity
a little after the time T(n- ), the current leads the
fields and a capacitive is presented to the circuit. The
electronic admittance can be written as follows:

This equation reveals that the phasor admittance is a

function of DC beam admittance, DC transit angle, and
the second transit of the electron beam through the
cavity gap, and is non-linear.

Electronic admittance spiral of reflex klystron

Any value of 0 for which the spiral lies in the area at th

of the line GjB will yield an oscillation, that is,

Equivalent circuit of a reflex klystron

L and C are the energy storage elements of the cavity,

Gc is the copper losses in the cavity, Gb is the beam
loading conductance, and Gl is the load conductance.
The necessary condition for oscillation is as follows
where -Ge is the negative real part of the electronic
admittance, given by
G= Gc+ Gb+Gl=1/RshwhereRshis the effective shunt
resistance.

Applications of Reflex Klystron

oscillator
Signal source in MW generator
Local oscillators in receivers
It is used in FM oscillator in low power MW
links.
In parametric amplifier as pump source.
Signal source in MW generator

Helix Travelling-wave Tubes

Differences Between TWT and Klystrons (Comparison
between klystron and TWT):
Klystron
Microwave circuit is
resonant

TWT
Microwave circuit is nonresonant

narrow-band devices
The interaction in the
klystron occurs only at
the gaps of a few
resonant cavities.

Wideband devices.
The interaction of
electron beam and RF
field in the TWT is
continuous over the
entire length of the
circuit

The wave in the klystron

The wave in the TWT is a

Slow-Wave Structures
As the operating frequency is increased , both the inductance
and capacitance in the resonating circuit must be decreased in
order to maintain the resonance at the operating frequency.
Because the gain-bandwidth product is limited by the
resonating circuit, the ordinary resonator cannot generate the
large output.
Non resonating or slow-wave structures are designed for
producing larger gain over a wide bandwidth.
Slow-wave structures are special circuits that are used in
microwave tubes to reduce the wave velocity in a certain
direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can
interact.
In travelling wave tube slow wave structures are used

Slow-Wave Structures

 ghgh

Amplification Process
Travelling wave is propagating in the z-direction then the z
component of the electric field
where E1 is the magnitude of the z-component of electric field,
and p is the axial phase constant and is given by the
following relation:
the force on the electrons exerted by the axial electric field can
be expressed as follows:

where vo -DC electron velocity, ve - magnitude of velocity

fluctuation in the velocity-modulated electron beam, e
-angular frequency of velocity fluctuation, and e -phase angle
of fluctuation

 For interaction between electrons and the electric

field, velocity of the velocity- modulated electron
beam must be approximately equal to the DC
electron beam velocity; therefore, v=vo
and we can write
Substitude z value in eqn

 Compare two sid of the equations

The equation reveals that the magnitude of velocity fluctuation of the electron
beam is directly proportional to the magnitude of the axial electric field. This
analysis neglects the space charge effect

Conventional Current
Determine the relation between the current and
the electron beam
If the space charge effect is considered, then the
electron velocity, charge density, current density, and
axial electric field can be written as follows:

Compare J

 The force equation

Substitute v and find v1

From the law of conservation of charges,

substitute 1 and v1 in J1

Rearrange the equation

 The spatial electric current I

If
Then
This is known as an electronic equation. Convection
current in the electron beam, given in Eq. induces an
electric field in the slow-wave circuit, which is added
to the field already present
in the circuit. As a result, the circuit power increases
with distance.
The electric filed

Called electric equation and substitute I in this eqn

Wave Mode
The wave mode of a TWT is determined by solving the
electronics and circuit eqn simultaneously for the
propagation constant.
We get

This equation is a fourth-order equation of the

propagation constant

Three roots of (- j).

 These equations reveal the following facts:

1. 1 is a forward wave and its amplitude grows exponentially with
distance. This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly lower than the
electron beam velocity, and energy flows from the electron beam to the wave.
2. 2 is a forward wave and its amplitude decays exponentially with
distance. This wave propagates at the same phase velocity as that of the
growing wave and energy flows from the wave to the electron beam.
3. 3 is a forward wave and its amplitude remains constant with
distance. This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly higher than the
electron beam velocity, and no energy transfer takes place between the
electron beam and the wave.
4. 4 is a backward wave and its amplitude remains constant with
distance. This wave propagates at a phase velocity slightly higher than the
electron beam velocity, and no energy transfer takes place between the
electron beam and the wave.

Gain of the amplifier

To determine the amplification
of the growing

wave, the input reference point is set z=0 the

voltage , current and velocity at the input point
are

= (-J)1/3

The amplitude of the output voltage can be written as follows:

Applications
Low-noise TWTs are widely used as RF amplifiers in
broadband microwave receivers and repeater
amplifiers
CW high-power tubes are used in tropospheric
scatter links due to their high power and large
bandwidth.
They can also be used in radar for jamming
purpose.
Pulsed TWTs are used in airborne and ship-borne
radars, as well as in high-power ground-based
radars.
Due to their long tube life, TWTs are also used as
power output tubes in communication satellites.

O-type Backward Wave

Oscillators

Magnetron

 hh

In a cylindrical magnetron, several reentrant cavities are connected to the gaps. The
magnetic field is usually provided by a strong, permanent magnet mounted around the
magnetron so that the magnetic field is parallel with the axis of the cathode. The cathode
is mounted in the center of the interaction space.
The de voltage Vo is applied between the cathode and the anode. The magnetic
flux density Bo is in the positive z direction. When the de voltage and the magnetic
flux are adjusted properly, the electrons will follow cycloidal paths in the cathode anode
space under the combined force of both electric and magnetic fields as shown

Operation
Magnetron theory of operation is based on the
motion of electrons under the influence of
combined electric and magnetic fields.
The law of motion of an electron in a Electric
field (E field)
The force exerted by an electric field on an electron
is proportional to the strength of the field. Electrons
tend to move from a point of negative potential
toward a positive potential.

The law of motion of an electron in a magnetic

field (H field)
The force exerted on an electron in a magnetic field
is at right angles to both the field and the path of
the electron. The direction of the force is such that
the electron trajectories are clockwise when viewed
in the direction of the magnetic field.

When the de voltage and the magnetic flux are adjusted properly, the
electrons will follow cycloidal paths in the cathode

EQUATIONS OF ELECTRON TRAJECTROY

The electron will acquire a velocity V having a
tangential as well as radial velocity component
due to force F exerted by the crossed fields E and
H
F=-eE-e(v X H).

At zero magnetic field, the electron take the

straight path a, by the influence of electric
field only.
For a given Vo if the magnetic field is
increased, the electrons take curved path b to
reach the anode.
At a critical value of magnetic field Bc, The
electrons just graze the anode surface at
radius b and take the path c to return to the
cathode for a given voltage Vo. This value Bc
is called the cut off magnetic flux density.
If the magnetic field is greater than Bc all the
electrons return to the cathode as shown by a
typical path d without reaching the anode.

 The equations of motion for electrons in a

cylindrical magnetron

Integrating

 at r = a,
cathode cylinder
Constant =

where a is the radius of the

 However, the electron velocity has r and

components such as
at r = b, where b is the radius from the center of
the cathode to the edge of the anode, V = Vo,
and dr /dt = 0, when the electrons just graze the
anode

Substitute r = b

 Substitute

This equation is calledHull cut off Magnetic equation.

if Bo > B0c for a given Vo , the electrons will not reach the anode.

Hull cutoff voltage equation.

if Vo < Voc for a given Bo, the electrons will not

reach the anode.

Operation of the Magnetron mode

oscillation
N resonant cavities in the anode exists N resonant
mode or frequency .
The phase difference between the adjacent cavities

n=integer
For continuous interaction between the electron and
the RF fields for transfer of energy, the anode dc
voltage is adjusted to coincide the average
rotational velocity of electron.
In the mode, the successive cavities in the cavities
in anode have opposite phase, excitation is
maximum in the cavity and the out power is
maximum (where n=N/2). Number cavities are
eight.

Hartree voltage
In mode, the phase difference between the
adjacent cavities is 180o. For strong interaction
between electron and wave, the phase velocity of
the wave is nearly equal to the drift and the
oscillations for mode at beam voltage

Which is known as Hartree voltage.

Mechanism of Oscillation

RF field id zero and the magnetic field filed exceeds cutoff

filed the electrons follow the path b (electron return to
cathode)
RF and magnetic field present, the electron path
modifies(favored electron).
Magnetron should have even number of cavities, where at
one instant one half of alternate ones will be positive and
other alternate will be negative. In this case, the electrons
are
attracted and retarded, thereby transferring their
energy to RF field
a (favored electron) retarding field b ( unfavored
electron) accelerating filed - back heating

Bunching Process
Bunching process is called phase focusing effect.
a, c, d are acted upon both radial and tangential
component of the RF field in such way c electron
moves faster than a and d moves slower than a and
from a bunch around a. These electron c to d are
confined to focused (spokes) and terminated to the
alternate node. This is called phase focusing. For
mode these spokes have angular velocity equal to two
anode poles per cycle and the electron within the
spokes deliver energy to the oscillations before they
are collected by the anode.

Tuning
The fine tuning of the magnetron oscillator is done
by changing (adding ) the capacitance between the
ring strap by placing a tuning ring. This reduces
the resonant frequency of the mode depending
upon the position of the C ring

Strapping
The magnetron has eight or more coupled cavity
resonators and hence several modes of oscillation are
possible. The oscillating frequency of different modes is
not same and is quite close to each other which results
in mode jumping. i.e., a 3 cm mode oscillation which
is normal for a particular magnetron could become a
3.05 cm-(3 /4) mode oscillation. This result in
oscillations of reduced power at wrong frequency. To
prevent this Strapping is used. It consists of two rings of
heavy gauge wire connecting alternate anode poles. It
provides a phase difference of 2 radians for the
modes other mode and thus preventing the
occurrence of other modes, except the mode.

Frequency pushing and pulling

Frequency pushing resonant frequency of the
magnetron is changed by changing the anode
voltage. Anode voltage changes the velocity of the
electron and energy transferred.
Frequency Pulling by changing the load impedance

Performance characteristic
Representing the performance char of magnetron
in terms of load impedance on Smith chart. Rieke
diagram consists of contours of constant
frequency, plotted on an admittance Smith chart.
These data are obtained by varying the load
impedance and observing the output power and
frequency. This is used to select the optimum load
impedance.

Power output and efficiency.

The unloaded quality factor of the resonator

The external quality factor
The loaded Qc of the resonant circuit
The circuit efficiency is

 The electronic efficiency is defined

where Pgen = RF power induced into the anode

circuit
Pdc = Volo power from the dc power supply
Vo = anode voltage
fo = anode current
P1ost = power lost in the anode circuit

Application of Magnetron
Used in Microwave oven (600 W, 915 MHz or 2.4GHz
Used in pulsed radar .power MW and frequency GHz
Used in industrial heating frequency range 500 MHz to 2
GHz. Power in KW
Voltage tunable magnetron as sweep ocsr on missile
application

Linear Magnetron

In the linear magnetron, the electric field Ex is in the

positive x direction and the magnetic flux density Bz
in the positive z direction. The differential equations
of motion of electrons is in the crossed-electric and
magnetic fields
They are number of slots placed and these are cut
wavelength deep functioning as quarter wave cavity
resonator
This structure forms of a series of microwave cavity
resonators coupling to an electron beam
The velocity modulated electrons are bunched and
the tightly bunched electron produce amplified
microwave energy at the output cavity which is
coupled to an eternal circuit
This offer high gain but narrow frequency bandwidth

Linear Magnetron

The Hull cutoff voltage for a linear magnetron is

Hull cutoff magnetic flux density for a linear magnetron

Hartree anode voltage equation that is a function of

the magnetic flux density and the spacing between
the cathode and anode.

Voltage Tunable Magnetron

The voltage-tunable magnetron is a broadband oscillator with

frequency changed by varying the applied voltage between
the anode and sole.
In the structure , the electric beam is emitted from a short
cylindrical cathode at one end of the device.
Electrons are formed into a hollow beam by the electric and
magnetic forces near the cathode and then are accelerated
radically outward from the cathode.
The electron beam is then injected into the region between
the sole and the anode. The beam rotates about the sole at
the rate controlled by the axial magnetic field and the dc
voltage applied between the anode and the sole.
In the -mode operation, the bunch process of the hollow
beam occurs in the resonator, and the frequency of oscillation
is determined by the rotational velocity of the electron beam.

 Power output can be adjusted to some extent through

the use of the control electrode in the electron gun.
Voltage-tunable magnetron uses a low-Q resonator,
and its bandwidth may exceed 50% at low-power
levels.
At high-power levels and high frequencies, the band
width percentage is limited.
However, at low-power levels and low frequencies, the
bandwidth may approach 70%.

BACKWARD WAVE CROSSED-FIELD AMPLIFIER

(CFA -AMPLITRON)
The CFA is similar in operation to the magnetron and is capable of
providing relatively large amounts of power with high efficiency
In contrast to the magnetron, the CFA have an odd number of resonant
cavities coupled with each other. These resonant cavities work to as a
slow-wave structure: an oscillating resonant cavity excites the next
cavity.
The anode cavity and pins comprise the resonator circuits.
The electric and magnetic fields in a CFA are perpendicular to each
other
Without an input signal and the influence of both the electric field
(anode
voltage) and the magnetic field (a strong permanent magnet) all
electrons
will move uniformly from the cathode to the anode on a cycloidal
path as shown in figure

If the input-waveguide introduces an oscillation into the first

resonator, the vanes of the resonator gets a voltage difference
synchronously to the oscillation. Under the influence of this
additionally electrons get acceleration (at the positively charged
vane) or they are decelerated (at the negatively charged vane).
This causes a difference in speed of the electrons.
The faster electrons catch the slower electrons and the forms
electron bunches in the interaction space between the cathode
and the anode. These bunches of electrons rotates as like as the
Space-Charge Wheel known from the magnetron operation. But
they cannot rotate in full circle, the Space-Charge Wheel will be
interrupted because the odd number of cavities causes an
opposite phase in the last odd cavity (this bottom one between the
waveguides).

 A pair of pins and the cavity are excited in

opposite phase by the strap line. The electron
beam and the electromagnetic waves interact in
the resonant circuits.
Gain = 16 dB, power output levels ranging from a
few hundred kilowatts to 3 MW,
Efficiencies ranging from 60% for normal power
levels to 76% for high-power, low-gain operation.
The tube is commonly used in air surveillance
radar and military pulsed radar.

REFLEX KLYSTRON
Single Re-entrant cavity as a resonator.
The electron beam emitted from the
cathode is accelerated by the grid and
passes through the cavity anode to the
repeller space between the cavity anode
and the repeller electrode .
The feedback required to maintain the
oscillations within the cavity is obtained by
reversing electron beam emitted from
the cathode towards repeller electrode and
sending it back through the cavity.

 The electrons in the beam are velocity

modulated before the beam passes
through the cavity the second time
and give up the energy to the cavity to
maintain oscillations.
This type of a Klystron is called a Reflex
Klystron because of the reflex action of
the electron beam.

REENTRANT CAVITY
Therefore the reentrant cavities are
designed for use in klystron and
microwave triodes
A reentrant cavity is one in which the
metallic boundaries extend into the
interior of the cavity
Inductance decreased
Reduced resistance losses
Prevents radiation losses

Mechanism of Oscillation
It is assumed that the oscillations are
set up in the tube initially due to
noise or switching transients and the
oscillations are sustained by device
operation.
The electrons passing through the
cavity gap d experience this RF field
and are velocity modulated.

Applegate diagram
The electrons B which encountered the
positive half cycle of the RF field in the
cavity gap d will be accelerated, A
which encountered zero RF field will
pass with unchanged original velocity,
and c which encountered the negative
half cycle will be retarded on entering
the repeller space.
All these velocity modulated electrons
will be repelled back to the cavity by the
repeller due to the negative potential.

 The repeller distance L and the voltages

can be adjusted to receive all the
electrons at a same time on the positive
peak of the cavity RF velocity cycle.
Thus the velocity modulated electrons
are bunched together and lose their
kinetic energy when they
encounter the positive cycle of the
cavity RF field.

 Bunches occur once per cycle centered

around the reference electron and
these bunches transfer maximum
energy to the gap to get sustained
oscillations.
For oscillations to be sustained, the
time taken by the electrons to travel
into the repeller space and back to the
gap (transit time) must have an
optimum value.

Mode of Oscillation
The electrons should return after 1, 2 or 3
cycles most optimum departure time.
If T is the time period at the resonant
frequency, to is the time taken by the reference
electron to travel in the repeller space between
entering the repeller space and returning to the
cavity at positive peak voltage on formation of the
bunch
Then, to = (n + )T = NT
Where N = n + , n = 0,1,2,3.
N mode of oscillation.

 The mode of oscillation is named as N =

, 1 2 etc for modes n =
0,1,2resp.
The Power output of lowest mode?

Multicavity Klystron

Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

Principle
Velocity modulated tube
High velocity electron beam is
generated by an electron gun and sent
down along a gas tube through an input
cavity (BUNCHER), drift space (FIELD
FREE) and an output cavity (CATCHER)
to a collector electrode anode.
The anode is kept positive to receive the
electrons, while the output is taken from
the tube via resonant cavities with the
aid of coupling loops

 Two grids of the buncher cavity are

separated by a small gap A while the
two grids of the catcher cavity are
separated by a small gap B.

OPERATION
The input buncher cavity is exited by
the RF signal, (the signal to be
amplified) which will produce an
alternating voltage of signal frequency
across the gap A.
This voltage generated at the gap A is
responsible to produce bunching of
electrons or velocity modulation of the
electron beam.

Applegate Diagram

HISTORY
The brothersRussell and Sigurd Varian
ofStanford Universityare the
inventors of the klystron. Their
prototype was completed in August
1937.

Reentrant Cavity
At a frequency well below the
microwave range, the cavity resonator
can be represented by a lumpedconstant resonant circuit.
When the operating frequency is
increased to microwave range, both the
inductance and capacitance must be
reduced to a minimum in order to
maintain resonance at the operating
frequency.
Ultimately the inductance is reduced to a
minimum by short wire.