Characterization of

single particle

Solids, in general, are more difficult to handle

than liquids or gases. In processing, solids appear
in a variety of forms-angular pieces, continuous
sheets, finely divided powders. They may be hard
and abrasive, tough and rubbery, soft or fragile,
dusty, cohesive, free flowing or sticky. Whatever
their form, means must be found to manipulate
the solids as they occur and, if possible, to
improve their handling characteristics.

Characterization of a Particle

Size

Shape

Densit
y

Individual solid particles are characterized by their size, shape

and density.

Particles of homogenous solids have the same density as the

bulk material. Particles obtained by breaking up a composite
solid, such as a metal-bearing ore, have various densities,
usually different from the density of the bulk material.

A Single Particle
Definition

McGraw Hills Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms (third

edition) defines a particle as any relatively small subdivision of
matter, ranging in diameter from a few angstroms to a few
millimetres.

A Single Particle

contd

Particle Size
Particle size is important as it affects properties such as the
surface per unit volume.
Particles are three-dimensional objects for which three parameters
(the length, breadth and height) are required in order to provide a
complete description. As such, it is not possible to describe a particle
using a single number that equates to the particle size. Most sizing
techniques therefore assume that the material being measured is
spherical, as a sphere is the shape that can be described by a single
number (its diameter). This equivalent sphere approximation is useful
in that it simplifies the way particle size is represented.

A Single Particle

Particle Size

contd

A Single Particle

contd

Particle Size
If all fine particles were spheres, their size would be defined explicitly by their
diameter or radius. If cubical, the length along one edge would be characteristic;
if of some other regular shape, another equally appropriate dimension could be
chosen. Regular shape particle can be: the cube, tetrahedron, octahedron,
sphere, etc.

Unfortunately, the great majority of particles are quite irregular and an arbitrary
definition of size is the only resort.
The shape and size are related since in order to define a size, one has to make
some assumption about the shape.

A Single Particle

contd

Particle Size by different

researchers
Martin (1931) defined the size of an irregular particle as the length of the
line bisecting the maximum cross-sectional area of the particle.
Feret (1929) defined particle size as the distance between the two most
extreme points on the particle surface.
The limitations of such definitions are:
If the distance between the farthest edges on the particle surface remains
the same but the rest of its configuration changes, its Ferets diameter shall
remain unaltered. Obviously, such a definition cannot describe the actual
size or shape of an irregular particle.

Some commonly used descriptions of particle size

A Single Particle

contd

Particle Size
The simplest shape of a particle is the sphere in that, because of its symmetry,
any question of orientation does not have to be considered, since the particle
looks exactly the same from whatever direction it is viewed and behaves in the
same manner in a fluid, irrespective of its orientation. No other particle has this
characteristic. Frequently, the size of a particle of irregular shape is defined in
terms of the size of an equivalent sphere although the particle is represented by
a sphere of different size according to the property selected. Some of the
important sizes of equivalent spheres are:
The sphere of the same volume as the particle.
The sphere of the same surface area as the particle.
The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as the particle.

Particle Diameter

A Single Particle

contd

The term particle diameter as a quantitative measure of the particle size should be used
with caution. The term diameter would be well representative of the spherical particle,
but real powders tend to be more irregular in shape with a distribution of sizes and thus
diameter may be interpreted differently by numerous operators.

CE: Circle Equivalent Diameter

For example consider

the 3 shapes having
same CE

What is termed an equivalent spherical diameter best meets the requirement for a nonspecific measure. Equivalence of size means that the diameter assigned to an irregularly
shaped particle is the same diameter as that of a sphere which behaves identically when both
are exposed to that same process.

Measuring Particle Size

The way that you measure a particle size is as important as the value of the
measured size. For example, how would you quantify yourself if measured
by:

1. Circumference around your waist?

2.Diameter of a sphere of the same volume as your body?
3. Length of your longest chord (height)?
As you can deduce, the measured values have different meanings and will
be important relative to those meanings.
If you are sizing a belt you would interested in the first size. If you are
buying a sleeping bag then the last one must be selected.

Measuring Particle Size

Thus, the equivalent size or equivalent diameter of an irregular

particle are utilized which can be defined as the size of a
spherical particle having the same controlling characteristics as
the particle under consideration.

Naturally, to apply this definition, we must first specify what this

controlling characteristic is?

Measuring Particle Size

For example powder used in chemical reactions should be characterized

by their surface area. The table given below indicates relationship
between physical phenomenon and related equivalent diameters:

Process in which
particle is involved

Controlling
characteristics

Representative
Equivalent
diameter

Catalysis

Surface area

Surface diameter (ds)

Gravitational Free settling

Mass of particle (or for a given

density , its volume)

Volume diameter (dv)

Dynamics of gas bubbles

in a liquid or that of liquid
drops in a liquid or gas

Volume of drop or bubble and

Surface area (the interfacial
tension at the gas-liquid or
liquid-liquid interface)

Volume surface
diameter (dvs ) or
Sauter Diameter

Measuring Particle Size

For catalyst particles, the surface area is the most controlling

parameter. The surface diameter (ds) is defined as the diameter of a
spherical particle having the same surface area as the particle. If S p is
the surface area of particle, then

Sp=(ds)2

ds= (Sp/ )1/2

The gravitational free settling velocity of a particle in a liquid is very

much controlled by the mass of the particle (or, for a given density, its
volume). We can therefore define the particle size for such a case by
the volumetric diameter (dv) which is once again defined as the
diameter of a spherical particle having the same volume as the
particle under consideration. Thus, if Vp is the volume of the particle,

Vp= (dv)3/6

dv= (6Vp/ )1/3

Measuring Particle Size

The dynamics of gas bubbles in a liquid or that of liquid drops in a liquid or

gas depend not only on the bubble or drop volume but also on the
interfacial tension at the gas-liquid or liquid-liquid interface. Thus, both the
volume as well as the surface area of the bubble or drop are controlling
parameters here. In such cases, volume-surface diameter or more
commonly called the Sauter diameter (dvs) is used. This is accordingly
defined as the diameter of a spherical particle having the same specific
surface (surface area per unit volume) as the particle (bubble or drop)
under consideration. Thus,

Where sp is the specific surface (surface area per unit volume) of the
particle (bubble or drop).
Thus, once the controlling characteristic is specified, we can define
the size of any irregular particle using the above methodology.

Optimum Particle Size

There is an optimum particle size, or at least a smallest and

largest acceptable size, for most items involving particles.
The taste of chocolate is affected by the size of their respective
ingredients.
Extremely fine silica is added to tomato ketchup to control its
flow.
Pharmaceutical tablets dissolve in our systems at rates
determined in part by particle size and exposed surface area.
The setting time of concrete, dental fillings, and broken-bone
casts proceeds in accordance with particle size and surface
area exposure.

Shape of a Particle
Measuring particle size alone is sometimes insufficiently sensitive to identify
important but subtle differences between samples. For example consider the 3
shapes below:

All these 3 shapes have the same area = 4 square units. When they are
converted to a circle equivalent diameter they give the same result - a circle
equivalent diameter of 2.257 units. This highlights the main disadvantage of
measuring particle size only - very different shaped samples could be
characterized as identical simply because they have similar projected 2D areas
or similar spherical-equivalent volumes. Particle shape often has a significant
influence on final product performance parameters such as flowability, abrasive
efficiency, etc., so some way of characterizing shape is required.

Shape of a Particle

Coarsegrained
soils

Rounded

Subangular

Subrounded

Angular

Shape of a Particle

Particle can be of different shapes:

Cubes, Plates, Rods, Blocky, Rectangle, Irregular, Needles

Defining Particle
Shape

Various aspects of particle shape are of interest, and therefore a range of

descriptors has been devised to allow particle shape to be quantifiably
described.

Circularity

Based on perimeter

Convexity

Based on surface
roughness

Elongation

Based on length/width

Particle Shape

CIRCULARITY
Circularity
is
a
measurement of ratio of
the perimeter of a circle
with the same area as
the particle to the actual
perimeter of a particle.
Circularity also has
values in the range of
zero to one. A perfect
circle has a circularity of
one, while a very spiky
or irregular object has a
circularity closer
to
zero.

CIRCULARITY

contd

CONVEXITY
Convexity is a measurement of the surface roughness of a particle and is calculated
by dividing the area as the particle by a total area. The easiest way to visualize the
total area is to imagine the area enclosed by an elastic band placed around the
particle. Convexity also has values in the range of zero to one. A smooth shape has
a convexity closer to zero.

Elongation
Elongation is a measurement of the length/width relationship and has values in
the range of zero to one. Elongation is a comparison between the strength of
the major axis (known as length) and the strength of the minor axis (known as
width) of a particle.
The elongation is defined as (1- width/length)

Sphericity:
volume

Defining Particle
Shape

Based on Surface area per unit

Specific surface ratio: Based on Surface area per unit

mass
Sphericity
s)
Volume (
shape
factor: Based on volume
It is defined as the ratio of surface area of a spherical particle having same volume
as the particle to the surface area of the particle. Since the diameter of a spherical
particle having the same volume as the particle is dv,
s = [(dv)2]/Sp
It must be noted that since sphericity compares the surface area of the particle to
that of the equivalent spherical particle, it defines only the particle shape and is
independent of particle size. Sphericity of a spherical particle is obviously 1.0. The
sphericity of a cubical particle of side a can be determined as follows:

Sphericity ( s)
Typical values of sphericities for some common materials are given here. Every
mineral has a given crystallographic structure, thus a given shape or configuration
and therefore a specific sphericity.
Material

Sphericity

Sand (rounded)

0.83

Fused flue dust

0.89

Fused flue dust (aggregates)

0.55

Tungsten powder

0.89

Sand (angular)

0.73

Pulverised coal

0.73

Coal dust

0.65

Flint sand (jagged flakes)

0.43

Mica flakes

0.28

Berl saddles

0.3 (average)

Raschig rings

0.3 (average)

The reciprocal of sphericity is

commonly called the shape
factor or more precisely, the
surface shape factor ( s).
Thus,
s = (1/ s)

Specific surface ratio (n)

It is defined as the ratio of the specific surface (surface area per unit mass)
of the particle to the specific surface of a spherical particle of the same
diameter. Let the average size of the particle be davg. Then,
Where s is the density of the particle.

Or
Log-log plot of n vs davg for different materials are shown in the figure.

Volume shape factor ( v)

This factor is sometimes used for calculating the volume of
an irregular particle. We know that the volume of a
spherical particle is proportional to the cube of its diameter.
If we assume the same is true for irregular particle as well,
then
Vp (davg)3
Vp = v (davg)3
Where v is the constant of proportionality and is called the
volume shape factor. Its value is (/6) for spherical
particles.

Density
Density is a common property of all matter. It is simply the mass of a
quantity of matter divided by the volume of that same quantity.
Accurately determined, density reveals much about the composition
of an alloy, provides information with which to keep a process under
control, reveals the richness of a mineral body, and much more.
There are three densities associated with powders.
The absolute density (also termed the true or skeletal
density) excludes the volumes of pores and of the
interparticle spaces.
The envelop density (sometimes called the apparent density)
includes the pore volume but excludes interparticle spaces;
and
The bulk density includes both pore volume and interparticle
spaces.