FLAC Training Course

Beijing, China
October 17, 2005

Training Schedule
October 17, 2005 (morning)
08:00-09:45

Introduction to FLAC
- Overview of potential applications and capabilites in
geo-engineering analysis and design
- New features in FLAC 5.0 and FLAC3D 3.0
Introduction to the FLAC Graphical Interface
- Menu-driven versus command-driven operation
- Simple tutorial

09:45-10:00

Break

10:00-12:00

FLAC Theoretical Background

- General-purpose versus limited-purpose analysis
- Explicit finite-difference solution
Practical Exercise
- Slope stability analysis

FLAC & FLAC3D

Basic Features

Nonlinear, large-strain
simulation of continua
Explicit solution scheme,
giving stable solutions to
unstable physical processes
Interfaces or slip-planes are
available to represent distinct
interfaces along which slip
and/or separation are allowed,
thereby simulating the
presence of faults, joints or
frictional boundaries

Displacements resulting
from construction of a
shallow tunnel

Advanced, Two and Three Dimensional

Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC & FLAC3D

Basic Features

Built-in material models:

"null" model,
three elasticity models
(isotropic, transversely
isotropic and orthotropic
elasticity),
eight plasticity models
(Drucker-Prager, MohrCoulomb, strainhardening/softening,
ubiquitous-joint, bilinear
strain-hardening/softening
ubiquitous-joint, double-yield,
modified Cam-clay, and HoekBrown)

Braced excavation

User-defined models written

in FISH (FLAC)
Continuous gradient or
statistical Advanced,
distribution Two
of any
and
property may be specified

Three Dimensional
Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC & FLAC3D

Basic Features

Built-in programming
language (FISH) to add userdefined features
FLAC and FLAC3D can be
coupled to other codes via
TCP/IP links
Convenient specification of
boundary conditions and
initial conditions

Model grid for service tunnel

connecting two main tunnels

Advanced, Two and Three Dimensional

Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC & FLAC3D

Basic Features

Water table may be defined for

effective stress calculations
Groundwater flow, with full
coupling to mechanical
calculation (including negative
pore pressure, unsaturated flow,
and phreatic surface conditions)
Structural elements,such as
tunnel liners, piles, sheet piles,
cables, rock bolts or geotextiles,
that interact with the surrounding
rock or soil, may be modeled

Excavation supported by shotcrete

wall, tiebacks and soilnails

Advanced, Two and Three Dimensional

Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC & FLAC3D

Basic Features

Automatic 3D grid generator

(FLAC3D) using pre-defined
shapes that permit the creation of
intersecting internal regions (e.g.,
intersecting tunnels)
Full graphical user interface in
FLAC; partial gui in FLAC3D (for
plotting and file handling)
Extensive plotting features
contours, vectors, tensors, flow,
etc.)
Graphical output in industrystandard formats includes
PostScript, BMP, JPG, PCX, DXF
(AutoCAD), EMF, and a clipboard
option for cut-and-paste
procedures

Sequential excavation and support for

a shallow tunnel

Advanced, Two and Three Dimensional

Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC & FLAC3D

Optional Features

Optional modules include:

thermal, thermal-mechanical, and
thermal-poro-mechanical analysis including
conduction and advection;
visco-elastic and visco-plastic (creep)
material models;
dynamic analysis capability with quiet
and free-field boundaries, and
user-defined constitutive models written
in C++

Liquefaction failure of a
pile-supported wharf

Advanced, Two and Three Dimensional

Continuum Modeling for Geotechnical Analysis
of Rock, Soil, and Structural Support

FLAC Version 5 & FLAC3D Version 3

New Features
1.

Hysteretic damping more realistic and more efficient than

Rayleigh damping for dynamic analysis

2.

Built-in Hoek-Brown constitutive model

3.

Thermal advection (convection) logic for thermal / fluid-flow

analysis

4.

Network key license version

5.

More efficient calculation of fluid-flow / mechanical analysis

(FLAC)

6.

New structural element types: liner elements, rockbolt elements,

strip elements (FLAC)

7.

Increased calculation speed (10-20% faster) due to optimization to

calculation cycle and updated compiler (FLAC3D)

8.

New MOVIE facility in AVI or DCX format (FLAC3D)

9.

Optional hexahedral-meshing preprocessor (3DShop) to facilitate

creation of complex meshes (FLAC3D)

MODELLING-STAGE TABS

FLAC Background
1. General-purpose vs Limitedpurpose analysis
2. Explicit finite-difference solution

Geotechnical Software
General-purpose
versus
Limited-purpose methods

Limited-purpose programs Limited-purpose programs are commonly used in geoengineering practice because they provide rapid solutions
and are generally very easy to operate. These programs
are based upon simplifying assumptions.
One example of a limited-purpose solution method is the
limit-equilibrium method. This type of program executes
very rapidly, and uses an approximate scheme mostly the
method of slices in which a number of assumptions are
made (for example, the location & angle of inter-slice
forces). Several assumed failure surfaces are tested, and
the one giving the lowest factor of safety is chosen.
Equilibrium is only satisfied on an idealized set of surfaces.

Examples of Limited-purpose Programs

Limiting condition
Forces only
(limit equilibrium)

Example
program
SLOPE/W
XSTABL

Linear properties
(equivalent linear
method)

SHAKE

Subgrade reaction
(Winkler springs)

LPILE
WALLAP

General-purpose programs A general-purpose program provides a full solution of

the coupled stress/displacement, equilibrium and
constitutive equations. Given a set of properties, the
change in both the deformation and stress state are
calculated --- e.g., the system is either found to be stable or
unstable, and the resulting deformation is determined.
The general-purpose approach is much slower than
comparable limited-purpose methods, but much more
general. Only in the past few years has it become a
practical alternative to the limited-purpose methods (as
computers have become faster).

Comparison of Limited-Purpose and General-Purpose Solutions

Comparison of
General-purpose to Limited-purpose programs Limiting conditions can be prescribed for general-purpose
programs to approximate the simplifying assumptions built
into limited-purpose programs. In this way, the generalpurpose program can be validated.
Further, when the limiting condition is removed from the
general-purpose program, the influence of the simplifying
assumption in the limited-purpose program can be
assessed.

We suggest using both general-purpose and limitedpurpose methods in parallel, to get confidence in the
general-purpose method.
- if they give the same result, this provides reassurance
- if they give different results, then the reasons can be explored; for
example, is there a different mechanism?

The combined approach can be justified in terms of quality

assurance.

Finite Difference Formulation

of FLAC

BASIS OF FLAC

FLAC solves the full dynamic equations of motion even for

quasi-static problems. This has advantages for problems that
involve physical instability, such as collapse, as will be
explained later.
To model the static response of a system, a
relaxation scheme is used in which damping absorbs kinetic
energy. This approach can model collapse problems in a more
realistic and efficient manner than other schemes, e.g.,
matrix-solution methods.

A SIMPLE MECHANICAL ANALOG

u, u , u
F(t)

Newtons Law of Motion

F ma m

du
dt

For a continuous body, this can be generalized as

du i ij

g i
dt
x j

where = mass density,

xi = coordinate vector (x,y)
ij = components of the stress tensor, and
gi = gravitation

STRESS-STRAIN EQUATIONS
In addition to the law of motion, a continuous
material must obey a constitutive relation that is, a relation between stresses and strains.
For an elastic material this is:

In general, the form is as follows:

where

A GENERAL FINITE-DIFFERENCE FORMULA

In the finite difference method, each derivative in the previous equations
(motion & stress-strain) is replaced by an algebraic expression relating
variables at specific locations in the grid.
The algebraic expressions are fully explicit; all quantities on the right-hand
side of the expressions are known. Consequently each element (zone or
gridpoint) in a FLAC grid appears to be physically isolated from its neighbors
during one calculational timestep.
(The time-step is sufficiently small that information
cannot propagate between adjacent elements
during one step)

This is the basis of the calculation cycle:

Basic Explicit Calculation Cycle

For all gridpoints (nodes)
velocities

Equilibrium Equation
(Equation of Motion)
du i ij

g i
dt
x j

Gauss theorem

nodal forces

Fi ijn jL

For all zones (elements)

strain rates

e.g., elastic

Stress - Strain Relation

(Constitutive Equation)

new stresses

FLACs grid is internally composed of triangles. These are

combined into quadrilaterals. The scheme for deriving
difference equations for a polygon is described as follows:

Overlaid

Triangular element

Elements

with velocity vectors

Nodal force vector

FLAC:

For all elements...

Gauss theorem,

f
dA
A x
i

n fdS
S

is used to derived a finite difference formula for elements of arbitrary shape.

b

u (i b ) nodal velocity

S
a

For a polygon the formula becomes

u (i a ) nodal velocity

f
1
f n i S
x i
A S

This formula is applied to calculating the strain increments, eij, for a zone:
u i
1

u (i a ) u (i b ) n jS

x j 2 A S
eij

1 u i u j

t
2 x j x i

FLAC:

For all gridpoints...

Once all stresses have been calculated, gridpoint forces

are derived from the resulting tractions acting on the
sides of each triangle. For example,

Then a classical central finite-difference formula is used

to obtain new velocities and displacements:

( in large strain mode)

Overlay & Mixed-Discretization Formulation of FLAC:

+
Each

is constant-stress/constant-strain:

Volume strain averaged over

and

/2 =

. Deviatoric strain evaluated for

separately
(Mixed discretization procedure)

Solution is Updated Lagrangian (grid moves with the material), and

explicit (local changes do not affect neighbours in one timestep )

Methods of solution in time domain

numerical grid

displacement

stress

force

x
EXPLICIT
All elements:

F f u,

(nonlinear law)

All nodes:

u F t
m

Repeat for
n time-steps
No iterations
within steps

IMPLICIT

Assume (u)
are fixed
Assume (F)
are fixed

element

F K u
global

m u K u F

Correct if
t

x min
Cp

p-wave speed

Information cannot physically

propagate between elements during
one time step

Solve complete set of equations

for each time step
Iterate within time step if
nonlinearity present

Methods compared
Explicit, time-marching

Implicit, static

1. Can follow nonlinear laws without

internal iteration, since
displacements are frozen within
constitutive calculation.

1. Iteration of the entire process is

necessary to follow nonlinear laws

2. Solution time increases as N3/2 for

similar problems.

2. Solution time increases with N2 or

even N3.

3. Physical instability does not cause

numerical instability.

3. Physical instability is difficult to

model.

4. Large problems can be modeled

with small memory, since matrix is
not stored.

4. Large memory requirements, or disk

usage.

5. Large strains, displacements and

rotations are modeled without extra
computer time.

5. Significantly more time needed for

large strain models.

DYNAMIC RELAXATION
In dynamic relaxation gridpoints are moved according to
Newtons law of motion. The acceleration of a gridpoint is
proportional to the out-of-balance force. This solution scheme
determines the set of displacements that will bring the system
to equilibrium, or indicate the failure mode.
There are two important considerations with dynamic relaxation:
1) Choice of timestep
2) Effect of damping

TIMESTEP
In order to satisfy numerical stability the timestep must satisfy the
condition:

xmin
t
Cp

where Cp is proportional to 1 /mgp. For static analysis, gridpoint

masses are scaled so that local critical timesteps are equal ( t 1 )
which provides the optimum speed of convergence. Nodal inertial
masses are then adjusted to fulfill the stability condition:

Note that gravitational masses are not affected.

DAMPING
Velocity-proportional damping introduces body forces that can
affect the solution.
Local damping is used in FLAC --- The damping force at a
gridpoint is proportional to the magnitude of the unbalanced
force with the sign set to ensure that vibrational modes are
damped:

LOCAL DAMPING

Damping forces are introduced to the equations of motion:

u i Fi | Fi | sgn (u i )

t
m

where Fi is the unbalanced force

The damping force, Fd is:

Fd Fi sgn(u i )
In FLAC the unbalanced force ratio (ratio of unbalanced force, Fi , to the
applied force magnitude, Fm) is monitored to determine the static state.
By default, when Fi / Fm < 0.001, then the model is considered to be in an
equilibrium state.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

Training Schedule
October 17, 2005 (afternoon)
01:00-02:45

FLAC Operation
System requirements, installation structure,
manual volumes, files, nomenclature, system of units
Grid Generation : [Build], [Alter] and [Interface] tools
Material Models : [Material] tool
Practical Exercise
Biaxial load tests

02:45-03:00

Break

03:00-05:00

Boundary Conditions / Initial Conditions : [ In Situ] tool

Histories / Tables / Fish Library : [Utility] tool
Global Settings : [Settings] tool
Solution : [Run] tool
Result Interpretation : [Plot] tool
Practical Exercise
Determination of failure

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS FOR FLAC

Processor Recommended minimum clockspeed of 1 GHz

Hard Drive Recommended minimum disk space of 100 MB
RAM RAM required to load FLAC is 60 MB; 24 MB is provided
by default for models and memory can be increased by
the user if needed
Display Recommended screen resolution is 1024 x 768 pixels
and 16-bit color palette
Operating System Any Intel-based computer running Windows 98
and upward is suitable
Operation on PC Networks A network-license version of FLAC 5.0
is available

FLAC 5.0 MANUAL

FLAC 5.0 MANUAL

FLAC 5.0 MANUAL

FLAC 5.0 MANUAL

FLAC 5.0 MANUAL

FLAC Files
Project File (*.prj)

ASCII file describing state of model and GIIC at the

stage the file is saved; includes FLAC commands,
link to save files, and plot views for the project

Save File (*.sav)

Binary file containing values of all state variables

and user-defined conditions at stage that file is saved

Data File (*.dat)

ASCII file listing FLAC commands that represent

the problem being analyzed

History File (*.his)

ASCII file record of input or output history values

Material File (*.gmt) ASCII file containing material properties (can be updated).
Plot File

Graphics plot file (in various standard formats)

Movie File (*.dcx)

String of PCX images that can be viewed as a movie

FLAC Nomenclature

Zone Numbers

Gridpoint Numbers

System of Units

GRID GENERATION

Build Tools

Alter Tools

BASIC MATERIAL MODELS

FLAC CONSTITUTIVE MODELS

Model

Representative material

Example application

Null

void

Elastic

homogeneous, isotropic continuum;

linear stress- strain behavior

holes, excavations, regions in which

material will be added at later stage
manufactured materials (e.g. steel)
loaded below strength limit; factor of
safety calculation

Anisotropic

thinly laminated material exhibiting

elastic anisotropy

laminated materials loaded below

strength limit

Drucker-Prager

limited application; soft clays with

low friction
loose and cemented granular materials
soils, rock, concrete

common model for comparison to

implicit finite-element programs

Mohr-Coulomb
Strain-hardening/softening
Mohr-Coulomb

granular materials that exhibit nonlinear

material hardening or softening

Ubiquitous-joint

thinly laminated material exhibiting

strength anisotropy (e.g., slate)
laminated materials that exhibit nonlinear material hardening or softening
lightly cemented granular material in
which pressure causes permanent
volume decrease
materials for which deformability and shear
strength are a function of volume change

Bilinear strain-hardening/
softening ubiquitous-joint
Double-yield
Modified Cam-clay
Hoek-Brown *
*new in FLAC 5

isotropic rock material

general soil or rock mechanics

(e.g., slope stability and underground
excavation)
studies in post-failure (e.g., progressive
collapse, yielding pillar, caving)
excavation in closely bedded strata
studies in post-failure of laminated
materials
hydraulically placed backfill
geotechnical construction on soil
geotechnical construction in rock

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
FOR CONTINUUM ELEMENTS
NULL

all stresses are zero: for use as a void - e.g., for excavated regions

ELASTIC

isotropic, linear, plane strain or plane stress

ANISOTROPIC elastic,assumes that the element is transversely anisotropic:

planes are planes of symmetry. The axes may be at any angle to the x, y axes:
y

FLAC PLASTICITY MODELS

Drucker-Prager
Mohr-Coulomb
Ubiquitous-Joint
Strain-Hardening-Softening
Double-Yield
Modified Cam-clay
Hoek-Brown
1. All models are characterized by yield functions, hardening/softening functions and flow rules.
2. Plastic flow formulation is based on plasticity theory that total strain is decomposed into elastic
and plastic components and only the elastic component contributes to stress increment via the
elastic law. Also, elastic and plastic strain increments are coaxial wuth the principal stress axes.
3. Ducker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb, Ubiquitous Joint and Strain-Softening models have a shear yield
function and non-associated flow rule.
4. Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb, Ubiquitous Joint and Strain-Softening models define the tensile
strength criterion separately from the shear strength, and associated flow rule.
5. All models are formulated in terms of effective stresses.
6. Double-yield and modified Cam-clay models take into account the influence of volumetric change
on material deformability and volumetric deformation (collapse).
7. Hoek-Brown incorporates a nonlinear failure surface with a plasticity flow rule that varies with
confining stress.

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS DRUCKER-PRAGER

Drucker-Prager

elastic/plastic with non-associated flow

rule: shear yield stress is a function of
isotropic stress

f s=
0

ft=0

k/q
Drucker-Prager Failure Criterion in FLAC

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS MOHR-COULOMB

Mohr-Coulomb

elastic / plastic with non-associated flow rule: operates on

major and minor principal stresses

ft=0

B
C
fs =0

2c
N

c
tan

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion in FLAC

(for constant n)

shear
stress
slope = G
shear strain

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS UBIQUITOUS-JOINT MODEL

Ubiquitous-Joint Model

uniformly distributed slip planes embedded in a

Mohr-Coulomb material

element

rigid-plastic, dilatant
max c j n tan

Mohr-Coulomb

Note: rotates with the element in large-strain mode

A

f s=0

cj

f t=0

B
tj

22

C
cj

tan j

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS STRAIN-SOFTENING / HARDENING

Strain-softening / hardening

identical to the Mohr-Coulomb model except that , C and

are arbitrary functions of accumulated plastic strain (p)*

produces
v

Output

Input by user

P d
e22P d e12P
p e11
2

1
2 2

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS
BILINEAR STRAIN-HARDENING/SOFTENING MODEL
Bilinear model

a generalization of the ubiquitous-joint model. The failure envelopes for

the matrix and joint are the composite of two Mohr-Coulomb criteria with
a tension cut-off. A non-associated flow rule is used for shear plastic flow
and an associated flow rule for tensile-plastic flow.

f =0

f =0
s
2

B
1

f =0
N

1 C

s
1

f2 s =

c1
t
tan
1

f1

c2
tan2

Cj1

=0

FLAC bilinear matrix failure criterion

f t =0
C
D

jt

Cj2

j2
j1

33

FLAC bilinear joint failure criterion

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS DOUBLE-YIELD MODEL

Double-yield model

extension of the strain-softening model to simulate

irreversible compaction as well as shear yielding.

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS - MODIFIED CAM-CLAY MODEL

Modified Cam-Clay model

v
N

q
normal
consolidation line

v
v

incremental hardening/softening elastic-plastic model,

including a particular form of non-linear elasticity and
a hardening/softening behavior governed by volumetric
plastic strain (density driven).

vB

swelling lines

ln p1

qcr M

pc
2

plastic
dilation
e p 0

tat
s
l

e
in
l
e

ca
ir ti
c
plastic compaction
e p 0

ln p

Normal consolidation line and swelling line

for an isotropic compression test

pcr

pc
2

pc

Cam-Clay failure criterion in FLAC

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS HOEK-BROWN MODEL

Hoek-Brown model

empirical relation that is a nonlinear failure surface which

represents the strength limit for isotropic intact rock and
rock masses. The model also includes a plasticity flow
rule that varies as a function of confining stress.

FLAC Interface Model

FLAC (OR CONTINUUM CODE)

Use for problems at either end of the joint-density spectrum

single or isolated discontinuities

interface

multiple, closely-packed blocks

ubiquitous jointing

problems

INTERFACES
Interfaces represent planes on which sliding or separation can occur:
- joints, faults or bedding planes in a geologic medium
- interaction between soil and foundations
- contact plane between different materials

To join regions that have different zone sizes

Elastic-plastic Coulomb sliding:

- tensile separation of the interface, and
- axial stiffness to avoid inter-penetration

INTERFACE MECHANICS
Each node on the surface of both bodies owns a length, L, of interface for the purpose of converting
from stress to force. L is calculated in the following way

A1

C1

B1

D1

B2 C2

Body 1
E2

A2

D2

LB2 LC2

LB1

LD2

LC1

LD1

LINEAR MODEL
n= -Knun

[Kn]=stress/disp

= -Ksus
= max (max,

) sgn ()

max= ntan +c
Fn = nL
Fs = L

Body 2

INTERFACE ELEMENTS
PROCEDURE
1. Form interface using grid generation commands

2. Null out region

bside
(i3, j3)
(i1, j1)

(i4, j4)
(i2, j2)
aside

3. Move grid halves together

4. Declare interface
int n aside from i1, j1 to i2, j2 bside from i3, j3 to i4, j4
5. Input the interface properties
int n Ks =... Kn = ... fric =... coh =...

INTERFACE PROPERTIES
Kn :

normal stiffness

Ks :

shear stiffness

coh :

cohesion of the joint

fric :

friction angle of the joint

ten :

tensile strength of the joint

If the interface is used to attach two sub-grids,it is necessary to declare it glued.

Properties estimation
Sub-grids attach:
- declare glued
-

4
K 3 G

K n K s 10.max
l

Geologic joints
- shear tests; considering the scale effect
- Kn and Ks for rock mass joints, can vary between 10-100 MPa/m for joints with soft
clay in-filling, to over 100 GPa/m for tight joints in basalt or granite.

Boundary and Initial

Conditions

Histories, Tables, FISH Library

Global Settings

Solution

Result Interpretation - Plotting