Dominating Set

Definition : A set of vertices W in the

graph G is said to be dominating set if
every vertex of V is adjacent to some
vertex of W.
In general there are several dominating
sets in a graph G.

Minimal dominating
set

Definition : A dominating set

W in G is said to be minimal
dominating if W/{v} is not
dominating set for any
vertex v in W.

domination number (G)

Definition : the number of
vertices in smallest
dominating set of G is called
domination number of G
symbol for domination
number is (G) .

(Kn)=1 as in complete
graph every pair of
vertices is adjacent.
(Kr,s)=2 , r,s >1 as all the
vertices in two partition set
are adjacent two vertices.
(which vertices?)
(Cn)= (n/3) n>2.

Q. Find (G) through

inspection ?
d

a
s

Answer : (G)=1

Q. A independent set is
maximal independent iff
it is a dominating set.
Solution : If W is any independent
dominating set then every vertex v in
V/W is adjacent to some vertex in W,
hence W{v} is not independent for
any vertex in V/W, i.e. W is maximal
independent.

Other way what is

other way?
If a set W is maximal independent
then it is dominating
That is obvious as every other
vertex v in V\W is adjacent to
some vertex in W or else
W{v} would be independent..

Q. Is every maximal
independent set minimal
dominating?
Solution : we already have every
maximal independent set W is
dominating is it minimal ?
For that let v be any vertex in W then
v is not adjacent to any vertex in
W\{v} hence W\{v} is not
dominating , i.e W is minimal
dominating.

Q. Is every minimal
dominating set maximal
independent?
Clearly not as in a complete
bipartite graph Kr,s r, s>1 any two
vertices vertices u & w of
different partition set form a
minimal dominating set but the
set {u ,w} is not even
independent as these vertices
are adjacent in Kr,s

Q. Find all maximal independent

and minimal dominating sets
containing
d
vertex m through
c inspection.

Solution :All maximal independent sets

Containing m are {m,c,w}, {m,a}, {m,s,w}
Are they all minimal dominating ?
They are all minimal dominating as every
maximal independent set is minimal
dominating.
Are there any other minimal dominating sets
containing m ?
If they are there they should not be
independent as every dominating
independent set is maximal independent.

Q. When is (G)=1
Solution : (G)=1 iff there exist a
vertex v in G which is adjacent to
every other vertex in G

Q. Find all minimal dominating

sets containing vertex z through
inspection.

Answer :

w
{z,a}, {z,c},{z,s}

Q. Find
(i) maximal independent sets
(ii) all minimal dominating sets containing vertex
z
(iii)

c
d
all
vertex
a minimal dominating sets containing

(i) All maximal independent sets

Containing m are {m,c,w}, {m,a}, {m,s,w}
{z,a} is only maximal independent set
containing z, all maximal independent
sets containing d {d,s,w},
are {d,a}
Hence all maximal independent sets are {m,c,w}, {m,a}, {m,s,w}
{d,s,w}, {d,a} &{z,a} .
(ii) All minimal dominating sets containing z
Answer : {z,a}, {z,c},{z,s}, {z,w}
(iii) Containing m do that your self.

Q. Find a graph G in
which
(G)= 3 & (G)=10

Q. For the graph G

prove (G)= 4

Prove (Cn)= (n/3)

n>2.

Q. For any graph G on n

-vertices prove (G) n max deg(v)
v V

Boolean arithmetic
Laws of boolean arithmetic
(i)aa=a (ii) a+a=a (iii) a+ac=a
As a consequence
(a+c)(a+d)=aa+ad+ca+cd
=a+ad+ca+cd=a+ca+cd=a+cd

Simple meth. based on boolean

arithmetic to find all minimal

dominating sets in G
Let ui 1in be n vertices of G

For vertex ui 1in , let

u i1 , u i 2 ,.......u i d be vertices adjacent to u i
then we form boolean product
n

(u i u i1 u i 2 ....... u i d )

i 1

and simplify with help of boolean airthmetic

to identify minimal dominating sets

Simple example
Find all minimal dominating sets in
G with help of boolean airthmetic
a

Yet other example

find all minimal dominating set
through boolean arithmetic

a
z

m
w

c
a
z

Boolean expression U
=
(c+a+m)(a+c+m+z)(m+c+a+w)(z+a+w)(w+m+z)
m

let c+a+m=q & z+w= r

U= q(q+z)(q+w)(r+a)(r+m)
= q (q+zw)(r+ma)= (qq+qzw)(r+ma)
= (q+qzw)(r+ma)
=q(r+ma)= (c+a+m)(z+w+ma)
=cz+cw+cma+az +aw+ama+mz+mw+mma
= cz+cw++az +aw++mz+mw+ma+cma+ma
= cz+cw++az +aw++mz+mw+ma
Each of above terms correspond to a minimal
dominating set
Hence all minimal independent sets are
{c,z},{c,w}, {a,z} {a,w}, {m,z} , {m,w} ,{m,a}

Uniquely colorable
graph
Definition : A graph G is defined as
uniquely colorable graph if it has
unique chromatic partition .

Is G uniquely colorable?

Q. Prove G is uniquely colorable.

c
a
z

m
w

Vertex Coloring and Chromatic Polynomials

PG() : the chromatic polynomial of G
=the number of ways to color G given colors.
Thm : (i) G= Nn PG() =n.
(ii) G=Kn PG() =(-1)(-2)...(-n+1)
(iii) If G is made up of components G ', G"
PG() = PG() PG()
(iv) G= Tn = Tree on n vertices, PG() =(-1)n-1.
Definition : (G) is smallest (+ve) integer for which
PG() >0

Properties of chromatic polynomial

(i) For a graph G of n vertices PG() is a polynomial of degree n
(ii) Coefficients in PG() are alternately (+ve) & (-ve)
(iii) Coefficients of n-1 in PG() is equal to (-1) |E|
(iv) constant term in PG() is 0.
(iv) sum of the coefficients in PG() is zero except for null graph.

Thm : PG ( ) PG - uv ( ) PG uv ( ) ,
where G - uvis the subgraph of G
obtained by deleting edge uv of
G & G uv is the graph obtained by
fusing the end vertices of uv
while keeping the graph simple.

a
m

z
z

m
z

PG ( ) ( 1) ( 1)
( 1)( 2)
4

Thm : PG ( ) PG uv ( ) PG uv ( ) ,
where G uv is the graph obtained
by addition of edge e between
nonadjacent vertices u & v in G
& G uv is the graph obtained by
fusing vertices u & v while
keeping the graph simple.

PG() =(-1)(-2)(-3)+(-1)(-2)
= (-1)(-2)(-2)
(G)=3

Q. Find Chromatic polynomial of G

-2

PG() =(-1)(-2)(-3)]-2 (-1)(-2)(-3)

(G)=4

Thm : Coefficients of n-1 in PG() is equal to (-1) |E|

Solution : Solution through induction on

number of edges
Basic step : if |E|=0, Then G =Nn
& result is true as PG() = n and
Coefficient of n-1 is zero.

Induction assumption : let result be true

For any graph G with |E|-1 edges.
Inductive Step :To prove it for any graph
with |E| edges, let uv be any edge of G ,
Then PG()= PG-uv() PGuv ()
Now G-uv is the graph on |E|-1 edges
Hence coefficient of n-1 in PG-uv() is -(|E|-1) as
per induction assumption.
Now PGuv() is the chromatic polynomial of graph on
n-1 vertices, hence coefficients of n-1 in PGuv() is 1 ,
i.e. coefficient of n-1 in PG() is -|E|.

How to find chromatic

polynomial of

Thm : If G and G are vertex disjoint

connected graphs and G is graph obtained
through joining a vertex of G to a vertex of
G

then

PG ( )

( - 1)PG' ( )PG ( )

Q. 10 Prove chromatic
polynomial of circuit of length n
is
( -1)n+(-1)n( -1) ,
n 3
Solution : Induction on n
Basic step for n=3 we have circuit of
length 3 is K3 and chromatic
polynomial is
(-1)(-2) = (-1)3+(-1)3(-1)

Induction assumption : for G circuit

of length n-1, PCn-1()= ( -1)n-1+(-1)n-

( -1)

Inductive step :If G is circuit of length n

Then PG()

= PG-uv() PG' ()
Where G' = Cn-1 , As when an
edge uv is deleted from circuit of
length n and vertices u &v are
fused we get a circuit of length
n-1

Now G-uv is tree on n vertices ,

hence
PG()= ( -1)

- ( -1)n-1
-(-1)n-1( -1)
n-1

= ( -1)n+(-1)n( -1)

Q.10 (Text Book) : For any connected

graph G , PG() (-1)n-1.
Solution : Let T be a spanning tree of G
Then every coloring of G is a coloring of T
hence total number of colorings of G
given
colors is less than or equal to total
number of colorings of T given colors ,
Hence PG() (-1)n-1.

Q. 2 Does there exist a

simple graph with
(i) PG() = 4 -5 3 +8 2 -4
(ii) .PG() = 4 -5 3 +7 2 -3
(iii) PG() = 3(-1)(-2)