Modes of Heat Transfer:

Conduction, Convection and

Radiation
References:
-Fundamentals of Heat & Mass Transfer, Frank P. Incropera, et. al. 7th Edition, John
Wiley & Sons 2011.
-Heat Transfer, J. P. Holman, 10th Edition (McGraw-Hill, Inc.), 2010.
-Heat Transfer-A Practical Approach, Yunus Cengel, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003.

Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature
difference.

What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.

Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy (cont.)

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy,

Temperature and Heat Transfer
Quantity

Meaning

Symbol

Units

Thermal Energy+

Energy associated with microscopic

behavior of matter

U or u

J or J/kg

Temperature

A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in matter

K or C

Heat Transfer

Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat

Amount of thermal energy transferred

over a time interval t 0

W/m 2

Heat Rate

Heat Flux

Thermal energy transfer per unit time

Thermal energy transfer per unit time

and surface area

+
U Thermal energy of system
u Thermal energy per unit mass of system

Why we need to undertake a detailed study on heat

transfer? After all, we can determine the amount of
heat transfer for any system undergoing any
process using a thermodynamic analysis alone.
The reason is that thermodynamics is concerned
with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another, and it gives no indication about how long
the process will take.
A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how
much heat must be transferred to realize a specified
change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy
principle.

In practice we are more concerned about the rate of

heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time) than we
are with the amount of it.
For example, we can determine the amount of heat
transferred from a thermos bottle as the hot coffee
inside cools from 90C to 80C by a
thermodynamic analysis alone.
But a typical user or designer of a thermos is
primarily interested in how long it will be before
the hot coffee inside cools to 80C, and a
thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this
question.

Determining the rates of heat transfer to or

from a system and thus the times of
cooling or heating, as well as the variation
of the temperature, is the subject of heat
transfer

We are normally interested in

how long it takes for the hot
coffee in a thermos to cool to a
certain temperature, which
cannot be determined from a
thermodynamic analysis alone.

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium

states and changes from one equilibrium
state to another
Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with
systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a nonequilibrium phenomenon.
Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot
be based on the principles of
thermodynamics alone. However, the laws
of thermodynamics lay the framework for
the science of heat transfer.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and
random motion for fluid flow over a surface.
Radiation:

Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron

configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material

medium.
Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material
medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.

Heat transfer: the mechanisms

Three mechanisms for heat transfer: conduction, convection and
radiation.

Heat transfer: the mechanisms

Conduction:
A diffusive process wherein
molecules transmit their kinetic
energy to other molecules by
colliding with them.

Heat transfer: the mechanisms

Convection:
A process associated with the
motion of the medium. When a
hot material flows into a cold
material, it will heat the region
- and vise versa.

Heat transfer: the mechanisms

Radiation:
The transfer of heat via electromagnetic radiation. Example - the
Sun.

Whales are warm bodies in a cold sea. Heat flow is a function of temperature
gradient and, given long exposure and the large temperature difference between
the interior of the whale's body and its watery environment (even with very good
insulation), it seems as though whales should freeze. The arrangement of the
blood vessels near the surface of the whale's skin creates a counter-current action
that prevents this outcome. There is very little temperature gradient between the
whale's surface and the sea, ergo, there is very little heat transfer, for a
temperature gradient is needed to transfer heat.

Conduction

Lecture 1

17

Conduction

Heat Transfer Rates: Conduction

Heat Transfer Rates

Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fouriers Law:

q k T
Heat flux

W/m

Thermal conductivity

W/m K

Temperature gradient

C/m or K/m

Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a

plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:

qx k

qx k

Heat rate (W): qx qx A

dT
T T
k 2 1
dx
L

T1 T2
L

(1.2)

Material

diamond

Thermal conductivity
k (W.m-1.K-1)

2450

Cu

385

Al

205

Brick

0.2

Glass

0.8

Body fat

0.2

Water

0.6

Wood

0.2

Styrofoam

0.01

Air

0.024

Thermal conductivity, k
property of the material
kdiamond very high: perfect heat sink, e.g.
for high power laser diodes

khuman low: core temp relatively

constant (37 oC)
kair very low: good insulator
* home insulation
* woolen clothing
* windows double
glazing

Metals good conductors:

electrons transfer energy from
hot to cold

20

The rate of heat conduction through a

medium depends on:
dT

T2 T1
qx k
k
dx
L

the geometry of the medium,

its thickness,
the material of the medium,
the temperature difference across the
medium.

Heat Transfer Rates: Convection

Convection

Heat Transfer Rates

Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development

of velocity and thermal boundary layers:

Newtons law of cooling:

q h Ts T
h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m 2 K)

(1.3a)

Newtons Law of Cooling

T

q
Tbody

q h (Tbody T ) h T
h

average heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)

Convection Heat Transfer

Convection is movement of heat with a fluid
E.g., when cold air sweeps past a warm body, it draws away
warm air near the body and replaces it with cold air
flow over a
heated block

often, we want to know the heat transfer coefficient, h

Forced and Free Convection

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.

Weather Convection
Day time: sea breeze coming toward
the land as a result of natural
convection

Night time: wind blowing from

land to sea because of the
natural convection

Radiation Heat Transfer

Thermal radiation is emission of energy as electromagnetic
waves
Intensity depends on body temperature and surface
characteristics
Important mode of heat transfer at high temperatures
Can also be important in natural convection problems
Examples:

toaster, grill, broiler

fireplace
sunshine

Radiation

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur

between two bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder
than
both
of them.
32
Lecture
1

Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation

Radiation

Heat Transfer Rates

Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G ), as well as convection if Ts T .
Energy outflow due to emission:
E Eb Ts4
E : Emissive power W/m 2
: Surface emissivity 0 1

(1.5)

Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emitter )

: Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 10 -8 W/m 2 K 4

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs G

Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation (W/m 2 )

: Surface absorptivity 0 1
G : Irradiation W/m 2

(1.6)

Absorption and Emission of Radiation

A body is considered transparent if it can transmit some of the radiation waves falling
on its surface. If electromagnetic waves are not transmitted through the substance it is
therefore called opaque. When radiation waves hit the surface of an opaque body, some
of the waves are reflected back while the other waves are absorbed by a thin layer of the
material close to the surface.

Energy out = Energy in

Emitted energy/Incident energy =34Emissivity = .

Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

G Gsur Tsur4

(a gray
surface)

radiation from a small body to its surroundings

both the body and its surroundings emit thermal radiation
the net heat transfer will be from the hotter to the colder

Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Alternatively,

hr Ts Tsur
qrad

hr : Radiation heat transfer coefficient W/m 2 K

hr Ts Tsur Ts2 Tsur2

(1.8)

(1.9)

For combined convection and radiation,

qrad
h Ts T hr Ts Tsur
q qconv

(1.10)

Process Identification

Problem 1.87(a): Process identification for single-and double-pane windows

Relationship to Thermodynamics

Alternative Formulations

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature
of a system.
Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval

Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface

CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval

APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME

At an Instant of Time:
Note representation of system by a
control surface (dashed line) at the boundaries.
Surface Phenomena

E&in E&out :
,

rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control

surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.

Volumetric Phenomena

E&g :

rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.

E&st :

rate of change of energy storage in the system.

Conservation of Energy
dE

E&in E&out E&g

st &
E st
dt

(1.12c)

Each term has units of J/s or W.

Over a Time Interval

Ein Eout Eg Est

Each term has units of J.

(1.12b)

Closed System

Special Cases (Linkages to Thermodynamics)

(i) Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M) Assuming Heat Transfer
to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the System (Outflow).

Over a time interval

Q W Esttot
For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy

Q W U t
Internal thermal energy
At an instant

q W

dU t
dt

(1.12a)

Example 1.4

Example 1.4: Application to thermal response of a conductor with Ohmic

heating (generation):

Involves change in thermal energy and for an incompressible substance.

dU t
dT
Mc
dt
dt
Heat transfer is from the conductor (negative q )
Generation may be viewed as electrical work done on the system (negative W&)

Example 1.6

Example 1.6: Application to isothermal solid-liquid phase change in a container:

Latent Heat
of Fusion

U t U lat Mhsf

Surface Energy Balance

THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE

A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):

E&in E&out 0

(1.13)

Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.

With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

qconv
qrad
0
qcond
k

T1 T2
4
h T2 T 2 T24 Tsur
0
L

Methodology

METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface by
dashed line(s).

Choose the appropriate time basis.

Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms

by labeled arrows on the schematic.

Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy requirement.

Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation.

Solve for the unknown quantity.

EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE

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