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Tom Holme
Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry
Chapter Objectives
Describe how chemistry and engineering helped transform
aluminum from a precious metal to an inexpensive structural
material.
Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic, microscopic, and
symbolic perspectives in understanding chemical systems.
Draw pictures to illustrate simple chemical phenomena (like
the differences among solids, liquids, and gases) on the
molecular scale.
Chapter Objectives
Explain the difference between inductive and deductive
reasoning in your own words.
Use appropriate ratios to convert measurements from one
unit to another.
Express the results of calculations using the correct number
of significant figures.
Aluminum
In the 19th century
aluminum was a rare and
precious metal.
Pure aluminum never
occurs in nature
Found in bauxite, an ore
The now common use of
aluminum is due to
collaboration between
chemistry and
engineering.
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During a physical
change, chemical
composition does not
change.
Heating liquid water to
make gaseous water
(steam)
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Particulate level
representation for
aluminum oxide, Al2O3, in
bauxite.
Particulate level
representation for
pure aluminum, Al.
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Observations in Science
Observations are recorded via measurements.
Accuracy - how close the observed value is to the true
value
Precision - the spread in values obtained from
measurements; the reproducibility of values
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Observations in Science
Measurements can have
poor precision and poor
accuracy.
Darts are scattered
evenly across the
board.
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Observations in Science
Measurements can have
good precision and poor
accuracy.
Darts are clustered
together
but darts are clustered
far from the bulls-eye
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Observations in Science
Measurements can have
good precision and good
accuracy.
Darts are clustered
together
and darts are
clustered close to or
on the bulls-eye
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Errors in Measurement
The difference between the experimentally measured value
and the accepted value of something is known as the error
% error = T. accepted value exptally determined value
theoretical accepted value
Measurements contain two types of errors:
Random Error
Systematic Error
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Observations in Science
Random Error Fundamental to a measurement. This may
make a measurement either too high or too low (e.g., variation
associated with equipment limitations)
i.e. The error has an equal probability of being higher or lower
than the accepted value. So for eg. A student measures the
density of a quartz sample (accepted value =2.65g/mL) 4 times:
2.72, 2.55, 2.68, 2.60 (g/mL); mean= 2.64 g/mL; density
close to accepted value, accuracy is good
Percent error is 0.38%
Systematic Error This type of error occurs in the same direction
each time ; either higher or lower than accepted value;
eg. Boiling point of water is 100.00 C . A student measures
the following values:101.2, 100.9,102.0,101.0. The mean
value of 101.30 C is 1.3% higher than accepted value so
accuracy not good as the density measurement above.
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Errors
A systematic error is an error that is the same for each
measurement. For example, if a 20g weight is placed
alongside your sample on balance, your weight will always be
20g too much.
This type of error is due to some bias in the measurement
apparatus. Impurities in metals is one such example of
possible error. Also for example if we estimate the density of
an aluminum in soda cans and do not account for the thin
layer of polymer applied to can. The density of polymer
coating is different from density of aluminum and so the
measurement would be systematically incorrect.
Systematic errors do not result from poor laboratory
technique.
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Models in Science
Models refer to a largely empirical description.
Gas pressure is proportional to temperature.
Theories are explanations grounded in some more
fundamental principle or assumption about the behavior of a
system.
Relationship between gas pressure and temperature
explained using kinetic energy.
Laws are sufficiently refined, well tested, and widely
accepted theories.
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Units
The base unit designates
the type of quantity being
measured.
SI units (from French
Systme International
dUnits) are the base units
of science.
Some units comprise
combinations of these base
units and are termed
derived units
1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2
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Units
SI Prefixes
Temperature
F = (1.8 C) + 32
C = ( o F -32)/1.8
K = C + 273.15
o
C = K - 273.15
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54,000 = 5.4 10 4
0.000042 = 4.2 10 5
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4.882 m
+ 0.3 m
5.2 m
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Using Ratios
Ratios represent the relationship between two quantities and
can be expressed two ways.
$4.45
Price =
= $0.89 per pound
5.0 pounds
5.0 pounds
= 1.1 pounds per dollar
$4.45
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1000 mL 0.975 g
5
346 L
= 3.37 x 10 g
1L
1 mL
Units of measurement can be used to determine how to
write the appropriate ratio by canceling out; called
dimensional analysis or the factor-label method.
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Visualization in Chemistry
Depictions of atoms and molecules provide one important tool
in the way chemistry is taught and learned.
Visualization in Chemistry
These particulate level
illustrations provide a
simplified view of the atomic
scale process involved in
smelting aluminum.
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