Elements of Electrical

Design
Prepared by
Hemin D. Motiwala

Course Content
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Magnetic Circuit
Chapter 2 Design of Electromagnets
Chapter 3 Design of Starters, Field Regulators,
&
Control Panels
Chapter 4 Design of Small Transformers &
Choke Coils
Chapter 5 Estimating Costing for Residential,
Commercial, & Service Connections
Chapter 6 Design Consideration of Electrical
Installation
Chapter 7 Armature Windings i.e. DC & AC
Windings

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Similarities between Magnetic & Electric Circuit:
Magnetic Circuit
Electric Circuit
The closed path followed by the
magnetic flux is called magnetic
circuit.

The path in which electric current can

flow is known as electric circuit.

Flux = MMF/Reluctance

Current = EMF/Resistance

MMF(AT)

EMF(Volts)

Flux Density B = /A ; Wb/m2

Current Density = I/A ; A/m2

Reluctance = S = l/0r A

Resistance = R = l/A

Permeance = 1/Reluctance

Conductance = 1/Resistance

Permeability = 1/Reluctivity

Conductivity=1/Resistivity

In series magnetic circuit, S=S1+S2+

- - + Sn

In series electric circuit, R=R1+R2+ - + Rn

In parallel magnetic circuit,

1/S=1/S1+1/S2+ - - + 1/Sn

In parallel electric circuit,

1/R=1/R1+1/R2+ - - + 1/Rn

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Dissimilarities between Magnetic & Electric circuit: Resistance is normally independent of current in an electric
circuit, whereas reluctance depends on the flux density in the
magnetic circuit. For this reason, magnetization(B-H) curves
of magnetic materials are used for determining necessary
excitation.
Flux actually links in the magnetic circuit, whereas current
actually flows in the circuit.
In magnetic circuit, energy is needed to create the magnetic
flux only at starting but in electric circuit, energy is consumed
till the current flows.
The magnetic circuit has the property of retentivity i.e. a
small amount of flux called residual flux persists after the
removal of the MMF whereas in electric circuit, the current
reduces to zero after the removal of the applied EMF or when
the circuit is open.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Magnetization (B-H) Curves: Magnetization curve of a magnetic material is the relation
between the magnetic flux density B and magnetizing force
H.
The curves are used for finding the MMF or ampere turns in
any part of a magnetic circuit. From these curves we can find
the magnetizing force necessary to produce certain flux
density in a magnetic circuit.
For low values of H, the flux density increases
linearly. However, for higher values of H, the change
of B is nonlinear. The magnetic material shows the
effect of saturation.
Non-magnetic materials (like air) have a constant value of
permeability & so the B-at curve for them is a straight line
passing through the origin.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Leakage flux & Leakage Coefficient: In magnetic circuit, all the magnetic flux produced does not pass through
the air gap but a portion of this flux takes a different path known as
leakage path. This flux is called leakage flux.
Therefore, leakage flux is the flux which follows a leakage path, which is
not useful for conversion of energy.
The leakage flux will affect the performance of rotating machines &
transformers. Therefore, the windings of ac rotating machines &
transformers is assumed to have leakage reactance X L & because of this
XL, there will be a voltage drop in the windings.
Leakage flux also affects the voltage regulation of alternators &
transformers, commutation conditions in dc machines.
To take into account the leakage flux, the leakage coefficient is used in the
magnetic circuit calculations.
The flux in the air gap is called useful flux.
Leakage Coefficient = = Total Flux / Useful Flux
Total Flux = Useful Flux + Leakage Flux
The spreading of useful flux at the edges of air gap is called Fringing.
Due to fringing, effective area of the air gap increases, therefore, flux

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

The path of magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.

Let,
= magnetic flux, Wb
A = area of magnetic path, m2
l = length of magnetic path, m
B = flux density, Wb/m2
H = at = magnetizing force, A/m
AT = total MMF, A
=0r =absolute permeability of mag. Material, H/m
= 4 x 10-7 H/m
r = relative permeability
S = reluctance, A/Wb
^ = 1/S = permeance, Wb/A
In magnetic circuit, relation between mmf, flux, & reluctance is,
= AT/S
---------------------------------- (2)
= AT x ^
---------------------------------- (3)
Reluctance = S = length/ area x permeability = I / 0r A
---------------------------------(4)
H = at = mmf per unit length = flux x reluctance per unit length
H = x 1/l x l/ A = /A = B/
---------------------------------- (5)
For a case of material of length l & carrying a uniform flux,
Total mmf = AT = H x l = at x l
---------------------------------- (6)

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

In series magnetic circuit, the total reluctance is the sum of reluctances of individual
parts,
S = S1 + S2 + S3 + -------------------------------------- (7)
Where, S = Total Reluctance
S1, S2, S3 = Reluctances of individual parts
The total MMF acting around a complete magnetic circuit is,
MMF = AT = S = [S1 + S2 + S3 + --------]
= AT1 + AT2 + AT3 + -----------= at1 l1 + at2l2 + at3l3 + --------------------------------------- (8)

AT = at l
----------------------------- (9)
Equation 7 & 8 represents the circuital law of magnetic circuit where at 1, at2, at3 are the
mmfs per meter for individual part & l1 , l2 , l3 are lengths of parts connected in series.

In parallel circuits, the same mmf is applied to each of the parallel paths & the total flux
divides between the paths in inverse proportion to their reluctances, as in corresponding
electric circuits.
= 1 + 2+ 3 + ---------------------------------------- (10)

Dividing by AT, the applied mmf,

/AT = 1 /AT + 2 /AT + 3/AT + -----------(11)
1/S = 1/S1 + 1/S2 + 1/S3 + -----------

-----------------------------

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit calculations: Calculation of Total MMF: The calculation of total MMF required to establish the
required flux in a magnetic circuit. The magnetic circuit
is split into different parts which may be connected in
series or parallel. The flux density is calculated in every
part & mmf per unit length, at is found by using B-at
curves. The summation of mmfs in series gives the total
mmf.
The method looks quite simple but, there are some
parts in the magnetic circuits, like air gap & tapered
teeth which present complex magnetic problems. These
problems are solved with special techniques outlined
below.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

MMF for air gap: Let,

L= length of core, m
lg = length of air gap, mm

ys = slot pitch

Ws = width of slots

Wt = width of tooth

Wo = slot opening

nd = number of radial ducts

Wd = width of each duct

The iron surfaces around the air gap are not smooth & so the calculation of mmf for
the air gap by ordinary methods gives wrong results.
The problem is complicated by the fact that:
One or both of the iron surfaces around the air gap may be slotted so that the flux
tends to concentrate on the teeth rather than distributing itself uniformly over the
air gap.
There are radial ventilating ducts in the machine for cooling purposes which affect
in a similar manner as above.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Consider, the iron surfaces on the two sides of the air gap
to be smooth as shown in figure.
The flux is uniformly spread over the entire slot pitch &
goes straight across the air gap.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
If we restrict our attention to only one slot pitch, the reluctance of air gap,

In a slotted armature, however, the effective area of flux path is

substantially decreased resulting in an increase in reluctance of air gap.
Consider a case of slotted armature, with a very small gap length as
shown in figure.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
The flux in this case is only confined to the tooth width.

There is, however, some fringing of flux around the teeth edges in a
slotted armature. The flux penetrates down the slot as shown in figure.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

It is obvious that the reluctance of air gap in this case is more than that
in the case of a smooth armature, but lesser than that in the case where
the whole flux is assumed to be confined over the tooth width.
A simple method to calculate reluctance in this case is to assume that
the air gap is uniformly distributed over the whole of slot pitch except for
a fraction of slot width shown in figure.
This fraction depends upon ratio of slot width to the air gap length. Thus,
the flux of one slot pitch is distributed over Wt + Ws.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

where, Kcs is the carters gap coefficient which depends upon the ratio
of slot width to gap length. The value of Kcs can be taken from figure.
An empirical formula which gives the value of Kcs directly is:

Another useful relationship which can be used for calculation of

carters coefficient for parallel sided open slot is:

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Let, ratio of reluctance of air gap of slotted armature

to reluctance of air gap of smooth armature be Kgs.
Therefore,

where, Kgs = Gap contraction factor for slots.

Therefore, the reluctance of air gap with slotted armature is
Kgs times that with smooth armature & the value of Kgs is
greater than unity.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
The provision of radial ventilating ducts results in contraction of flux in the
axial direction shown in figure.
It is clear that the effective axial length of the machine is reduced owing
due to presence of ducts & this results in an increase in the reluctance of air
gap. We can derive the similar expression for ventilating ducts by treating
stacks of laminations as teeth & ducts as slots.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
where, Kcd = carters coefficient for ducts.
Value of Kcd can be taken by using ratio (duct width / gap
length) in place of ratio (slot width / gap length).
Let, the ratio of reluctance of air gap with ducts to
reluctance of air gap without ducts be Kgd.

Kgd = gap contraction factor for ducts

When two ventilating ducts, one on stator & other on rotor
are exactly opposite to each other, the carters coefficient
must now be based upon ratio duct width/half gap length, as
to an approximation we can ascribe only one half gap to
each duct.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
The effect of both slotting & ventilating ducts can be allowed
for in a single expression. Considering one slot pitch,

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit
Where, Kg is the ratio of reluctance of air gap of a slotted
armature with ducts to reluctance of air gap of smooth
armature without ducts & is called Total Gap Contraction
Factor for ducts & slots.
For induction motor, with slots on both sides of air gap, it is customary
to calculate gap contraction factors for both stator & rotor slots.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Kgss = Gap contraction factor for stator slots

Kgsr = Gap contraction factor for rotor slots
Kgs = Total gap contraction factor for slots
Kgs = Kgss x Kgsr
The expressions involving Kcs used above ahead, apply
parallel sided slots of great depth. When slots are
decreased.
When semi-enclosed slots are used Kcs is increased
depends on ratio (slot opening/gap length) rather than
width/gap length).
For semi-enclosed slots, the equations are modified as,

only to open
shallow, Kcs
since now it
on ratio (slot

The reluctance of air gap with slotted armature is higher than

with smooth armature. The ratio of the two reluctances is
equal to Kg, the gap contraction factor.
In other words, the mmf required for the gap with slotted
armature is Kg times the mmf required for the gap with

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of
magnetic circuit

The MMF required for a smooth armature is:

ATg = 800, 000 B lg
while for a slotted armature the air gap MMF is:
ATg = 800, 000 Kg B lg = 800, 000 B (Kg lg)
The above relation may be interpreted as that the
length of air gap is increased Kg times (instead to say
that area is reduced to 1/Kg times as earlier) due to
the provision of slots & ducts.
Thus, the effective gap length,
lgs = Kg lg
& therefore, Kg is called Gap Expansion Factor.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Effect of Saliency: In case of salient pole machines, the length of air gap is not
constant over the whole pole pitch. This gives rise to different
values of air gap density over the pole pitch.
Thus, to know the value of reluctance of the air gap, it is
necessary to know the distribution of magnetic field in the air
gap.
Figure shows the typical flux distribution curve for a salient pole
machines. Figure shows the flux tubes passing from field to
armature.
The equivalent electric circuit for this magnetic circuit is a
number of resistance connected in parallel with each
resistance representing flux tube.
In parallel electric circuit, it is sufficient to know the
value of only one resistance & the current flowing
through it in order that the voltage across the circuit be
known.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Approxim
ate

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

MMF required for air gap of a salient pole machine

ATg = flux in a flux tube x reluctance of flux tube
Let us consider a flux tube at the centre of the pole.
Flux in a flux tube at the centre = flux density x area of flux tube = Bg x area of flux
tube
Reluctance of flux tube at the centre

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Net length of Iron: The cores of magnetic circuit are built up with laminations of
steel plates wherever required. These laminations or stampings
are insulated from each other by paper, stuck to one side of the
laminations, kaolin clay or enamel.
Moreover, in order to have an effective cooling of the machine,
the length of the core is divided into packets of about 40 to 80
mm width separated by vent spacers. These vent spacers form
ventilating ducts through which air is circulated. These ducts are
radial & their width normally varies from 8 to 10 mm.
It is clear that whole of the length is not occupied by iron; some
part of the length is taken up by ventilating ducts & some part by
insulation between steel laminations & air spaces created by
irregularities in thickness of laminations. It is usual to define iron
space factor, called Stacking Factor.
Stacking factor is the ratio of actual length of iron in a stack of
assembled core plates to the total axial length of stack.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Gross iron length = length of slot portion conductor
Gross iron length = core length length of
ventilating ducts
Ls = L nd W d
--------------------(38)
Net length of iron = Li = Ki (L nd Wd)
--------------------(39)
where, Ki = Stacking factor for iron which largely
depends upon thickness of plates & the type of insulating
material used.
The practical value of stacking factor is 0.9.
The manufacturer specify the stacking factor for a single
laminations.
The stacking factor depends upon the thickness of core &
the thickness & type of insulation used for laminations.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

MMF for Teeth: The calculation of mmf necessary to maintain the flux in the teeth
is difficult due to the following problems:
The teeth are wedge-shaped or tapered when parallel sided slots
are used. This means that the area presented to the path of flux is
not constant & it gives different values of flux density over the
length of teeth.
The slot provides another parallel path for the flux, parallel to the
tooth. The teeth are normally worked in the saturation region &
therefore their permeability is low, & as a result some portion of
the flux goes down the depth of the slots. The presence of two
parallel paths, the reluctance of one part depending upon the
degree of saturation in the other, makes problem more complex.
Tapered Teeth: The mmf required for the teeth can be easily calculated whatever
may be their shape, if the flux going down the slot is neglected.
Following methods are used for the calculation of mmf required for
taped teeth.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Graphical Method: The mmf per meter for the whole length of tooth is not uniform as
the flux density is not the same everywhere. Therefore, to obtain
correctly the value of total mmf, it is necessary to construct a
graph showing the manner in which at varies over the length of
tooth. The mean ordinate of this graph gives the equivalent at for
the whole of the tooth. The total mmf for the teeth is given by,
H. dl , the integration being carried out for the complete height
of tooth.
Therefore, total mmf required for the tooth,
ATt = atmean x lt = atmean x ds
------------------------(40)
The height of tooth lt is equal to ds, the depth of slot.
To determine this atmean, it is necessary to construct first a graph
showing the manner in which the flux density varies from the
known value of flux per tooth, the flux density is evaluated for the
number of sections along the length of the tooth from tip to root.
The corresponding value of at are found from B-at curve of the

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Three-ordinate method(Simpsons Rule): This method can be applied to teeth of very
simple form & of a small taper & based on the
assumption that the curve relating at with flux
density is parabola. In this method, values of
at are obtained at three equidistant points,
the ends of the tooth & its centre.
The mean value of at is given by,
atmean = at1 + 4at2 + at3 / 6
------------------------(41)
where, at1 , at2 , at3 are the values of at for
three sections shown in figure.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Bt1/3 method: This method is applied to teeth of small taper & is based
upon the assumption that value of at is obtained for flux
density at a section 1/3rd of tooth height from the narrow
end is the mean of at for whole of the tooth.
This method is the most simple of all the methods &
results are sufficiently accurate if the teeth are worked at
low saturation.
Let,
Bt1/3 = flux density at 1/3rd height from the narrow end
at1/3 = mmf per meter for Bt1/3 as obtained from B-at
curves.
Total mmf for teeth
ATt = at1/3 x lt = at1/3 x ds
------------------------(42)

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Real & Apparent flux densities: It is already been stated that the slot provides an alternative path for
the flux to pass, although the flux entering an armature from the air
gap follows the path principally in iron.
If the teeth density is high, the mmf acting across the teeth is very
large & as the slots are in parallel with the teeth, this mmf acts
across the slots also.
Thus, at saturation densities, the flux passing through the slots
becomes large cannot be neglected & any calculation based upon no
slot flux leads to wrong results.
This means that the real flux passing through the teeth is always less
than the total or apparent flux. As a result, the real flux density in
the teeth is always less than the apparent flux density.
The apparent flux density is defined as,

& real flux density is defined as,

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
In actual machines, taking the flux over the one slot pitch,
there are two parallel paths.
Iron path: Area of iron path = Tooth width x net iron length
Ai = W t x L i
Air path: Area of air path = Total area Iron area
Area of air path = (slot pitch x core length) (tooth width x
net iron length)
A a = y s x L W t x Li
If s is the flux over the slot pitch, we have:
s = i + a
where,
i = flux passing through iron over a slot pitch
a = flux passing through air over a slot pitch

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

------------------------(43)
where, Ba = flux density in air = 0H = 4 x 10-7atreal
where, atreal = mmf per meter across the tooth density, Breal

------------------------(44)
Breal = Bapp - 4 x 10-7 atreal K
------------------------(45)
Breal = Bapp - 4 x 10-7 atreal (Ks 1)
------------------------(46)
where, Ks = 1 + K = total area/iron area =
------(47)

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
It is clear that the value atreal used above is corresponding to
the real flux density, Breal.
The slot & tooth form a parallel magnetic circuit & therefore,
the mmf across them is the same. Since, length of flux path
through slot & tooth is the same & hence, mmf per meter
length for both is the same.
The mmf per meter in tooth is atreal corresponding to real flux
density Breal the mmf per meter across the slot is also at real.
Eqn. 46 cannot be easily solved as there are two unknowns i.e.
Breal & atreal.
The value of atreal depends upon the value of Breal.
In order to solve this equation for machine with any dimensions
it is desirable to have data available which immediately gives
the value of atreal & Breal for various values of Bapp & Ks. From
B-at curves Breal & atreal can be readily obtained.
There is another method available for obtaining the value of
Breal & atreal. This method is comparatively lengthy but useful

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Iron Losses: When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to
a flux in a fixed direction in space, & having a
magnitude varying in time, losses are produced
in the material. This losses are called iron or
core losses.
The cores of transformers, reactors & the
armature of DC & AC machines, which carry
alternating flux are subjected to iron losses.
The iron losses have two components:
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Hysteresis loss: Alternating magnetization of a material occurs with a certain loss of energy.
The hysteresis loss is due to a form of intermolecular friction.
The loss per cycle is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop
& depends upon the quality of the magnetic material.
The loss due to hysteresis for a material operating in an alternating
magnetic field is usually expressed in terms of loss per unit volume or
per unit mass.
Hysteresis loss
Ph = K (area of loop) f in W/m3 or W/Kg ----------------------- (48)
where, K = constant
Steinmetz developed an empirical relationship to express this loss in,
Ph = Kh f Bmk ----------------------- (49)
where, Ph = hysteresis loss, W/m3 or W/Kg
Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/ m2
Kh = hysteresis coefficient
K = Steinmetz constant = 1.5 to 2.5
f = frequency of magnetization, Hz

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Eddy current & eddy current losses: The term eddy currents is applied to those electric
currents which circulate within a mass of conducting
material when it is situated in a varying magnetic field.
The material may be considered as consisting of large
number of closed conducting paths, each of which
behaves like a short-circuited winding.
The varying magnetic field induces eddy emfs in these
closed elemental paths giving rise to eddy currents. These
eddy current produce loss in power resulting in heating
materials. This loss results in heating of the machines.
The magnetic material used for varying magnetic
fields are laminated to reduce eddy currents as by
laminating, the area of paths of eddy currents is
reduced giving rise to a large value of resistance.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Eddy current loss in thin sheets: Figure shows a thin plate of
laminations of thickness t & width
b, the thickness being considerably
smaller than the width. The height
of laminations is h.
The eddy currents produce a magnetic
field of their own which opposes the
main magnetic field. The result is nonuniform distribution of magnetic field
over the cross-section of laminations.
However, for the purpose of this
analysis, a uniform flux distribution
is assumed.
Suppose, this sheet carries a field
with a flux density B = Bm sin t,
the field running parallel to the axis of
the sheet. Eddy currents would flow in
the sheet in the elemental paths as
shown.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
Total Iron Loss: Total iron loss is the sum of hysteresis & eddy current loss & is
expressed by the formula,
Pi = Ph + Pe
Pi = Kh f Bmk + Ke f2 Bm2, in W/m3 or W/Kg ------------------ (50)
The iron losses in actual machines are higher than those given
by the above expression. The reason for this difference are,
There are additional losses in the machine. These losses are
possibly due to movements of the boundaries between
microscopic magnetic region.
The relationships are based on the assumption that the field
varies sinusoidally with time. In practice, the flux density at a
point in the core neither varies sinusoidally with time nor
alternates along a single axis. The non-sinusoidal nature of flux
variations alter both eddy current as well as hysteresis losses.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit
The eddy current losses for sinusoidal waveform is given by,
Pe = 2 f2 Bm2 t2/ 6 = (1.11)2 f2 Bm2 t2/ 6 W/Kg
The form factor for a purely sinusoidal waveform is 1.11.
Therefore, the eddy current loss for any non-sinusoidal
waveform with form factor is,
Pe = Kf2 f2 Bm2 t2/ 6 W/Kg
Pulsation losses: In a rotating electrical machines, the armature are slotted &
as a result when a rotor moves there are rapid changes
of local gap reluctance. This change in reluctance gives
rise to flux pulsations. i.e. changes in the air gap flux a
condition which produces additional losses called
pulsation losses in the teeth & pole faces.
This effect is more serious if the length of air gap is small as
compared to slot opening.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Magnetic Leakage Calculations: Types of Armature Leakage Flux: Slot Leakage Flux: Slot leakage flux crosses the slot from one tooth to the next, linking with
that portion of the conductors below it by returning through the iron.
The leakage flux in armature of rotating machines is superimposed upon
the useful flux in the air gap region. The distribution of the air gap flux is
modified on account of existence of leakage flux.
The distribution of total flux in air gap region is shown in Figure(a).
However, the leakage flux in the overhang is different. Figure(b) shows its
arbitrary two components, useful flux & leakage flux.
Top Tooth Leakage Flux: This leakage flux passes from top of one tooth to the top of another tooth.
This leakage flux is important in machines having large gap lengths like
DC machines & synchronous machines while in induction machines, it is
normally negligible.
Zigzag leakage flux: This flux passes from one tooth to another in a zigzag fashion across the
air gap. The magnitude of this flux depends upon the length of air gap &

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Overhang leakage flux: The overhang portion of armature windings produces a separate
leakage flux. Its magnitude depends upon the arrangement of
overhang.
Harmonic leakage flux: This flux is due to the fact that the primary & secondary mmf
distributions are not similar. Any unbalanced components will
cause harmonic fluxes, each of which rotates at its own
synchronous speed causing a fundamental frequency reactive
voltage drop in the primary.
Skew leakage flux: This is only present when the slots are skewed. Skewing is
generally done in SCIM to eliminate harmonic torques & noise. If
the rotor slots are skewed, the voltage in rotor conductors is
reduced. This results in apparent decrease in mutual flux creating
a large difference between total flux & mutual flux.
Periphery leakage flux: This flux exists circumferentially round the air gap without linking

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of magnetic

circuit

Properties of Insulating materials

High dielectric strength

High insulation resistance
Low dielectric constant or permittivity
Low dielectric loss
High mechanical strength
High thermal conductivity
High degree of thermal stability
It should be free from moisture.
Liquid insulating materials should not evaporate.
Solid insulating materials should have high
melting point.

Classification of Insulating materials

Class of
Insulation

Maximum working
temperature

Materials

90C

Cotton, paper, silk, wood, PVC & similar

organic materials neither impregnated nor
immersed in oil.

105C

Cotton, paper, silk when impregnated with

natural resins & immersed in liquid
dielectric.

120C

Enamelled wire insulations on a base of

polyvinyl formal, polyurethane and epoxy
resins, mouldings, power plastics, etc.

130C

Inorganic materials such as mica, fibre

glass, asbestos impregnated with varnish &
other compounds.

155C

Mica, polyester, epoxide varnishes & other

varnishes with a high heat resistance as
compared with class B materials.

180C

Composite materials of mica, fibre glass, &

Insulating materials
Solid insulating materials: - mica,
ceramic, glass, rubber, asbestos,
porcelain, fibrous, plastic, silk, wood,
epoxy resins, etc.
Liquid insulating materials: - varnish,
transformer oils, silicon oil, synthetic
liquid, etc.
Gaseous insulating materials: - air,
SF6
gas,
nitrogen,
halogen,
hydrogen, etc.